The Parthenon a temple dedicated to Athena located on the Acropolis in Athens is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks. History of Greece This article is part of a series Greek Bronze Age Helladic civilization Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Ancient Greece Greek Dark Ages Archaic Greece Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Medieval Greece Byzantine Greece Frankish and Latin states Ottoman Greece Modern Greece War of Independence Kingdom of Greece Second Hellenic Republic 4th of August Regime Axis occupation Civil War Military Junta Third Hellenic Republic History by topic Art  Constitution  Economy  Military  Names Greece Portal v d e

Ancient Greece is the Iron Age civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity and beginning of the Early Middle Ages with the rise of the Byzantine era following Justinian I.1 At the center of this time period is Classical Greece which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC at first under Athenian leadership successfully repelling the military threat of Persian invasion. The Athenian Golden Age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea.

Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.234 Contents 1 Chronology 2 Historiography 3 History 3.1 Archaic period 3.2 Classical Greece 3.2.1 5th century 3.2.2 4th century 3.3 Hellenistic Greece 3.4 Roman Greece 4 Geography 4.1 Regions 4.2 Colonies 5 Politics and society 5.1 Political structure 5.2 Government and law 5.3 Social structure 5.4 Education 5.5 Economy 5.6 Warfare 6 Culture 6.1 Philosophy 6.2 Literature 6.3 Science and technology 6.4 Art and architecture 6.5 Religion and mythology 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 Further reading 10 References 11 External links Chronology Further information: Timeline of ancient Greece

There are no fixed or universally agreed upon dates for the beginning or the end of Classical Antiquity. It is typically taken to last from the 8th century BC until the 6th century AD or for about 1300 years.

Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages (c.1100-c.750 BC) archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric style of designs on pottery succeeded by the Orientalizing Period a strong influence of Syro-Hittite Assyrian Phoenician and Egyptian cultures.

Traditionally the Archaic period of ancient Greece is taken in the wake of this strong Orientalizing influence during the 8th century BC which among other things brought the alphabetic script to Greece marking the beginning of Greek literature (Homer Hesiod). The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period at the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC.

The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may thus be subdivided into the following periods:5 The Archaic period (c.750-c.500 BC) follows in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff hieratic poses with the dreamlike 'archaic smile'. The Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens in 510 BC. The Classical period (c.500-323 BC) is characterised by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary (i.e. 'classical')for instance the Parthenon. Politically the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon. The Hellenistic period (323-146 BC) is when Greek culture and power expanded into the near and middle east. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest. Roman Greece the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD. the final phase of Antiquity is the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries taken to be complete with the closure of the Neoplatonic Academy by Justinian I in 529 AD. Historiography Main article: Greek historiographers

The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography while earlier ancient history or proto-history is known by much more circumstantial evidence such as annals or king lists and pragmatic epigraphy.

Herodotus is widely known as the "father of history" his Histories being eponymous of the entire field. Written between the 450s and 420s BC the scope of Herodotus' work reaches about a century into the past discussing 6th-century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia Cambyses II and Psamtik III and alludes to some 8th-century ones such as Candaules.

Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides Xenophon Demosthenes Plato and Aristotle. Most of these authors were either Athenians or pro-Athenians which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than of many other cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political military and diplomatic history ignoring economic and social history.6 History Further information: History of Greece Archaic period Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period or the beginning of the Archaic period ca. 750 BC. Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods Main article: Archaic period in Greece In the 8th century BC Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From about the 9th century BC written records begin to appear.7 Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography where every island valley and plain is cut off from its neighbours by the sea or mountain ranges.8 The Lelantine War (c.710-c.650 BC) was an ongoing conflict with the distinction of being the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important poleis (city-states) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war though Chalcis was the nominal victor. A mercantile class rose in the first half of the 7th century shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC. 9 This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states. The aristocratic regimes which generally governed the poleis were threatened by the new-found wealth of merchants who in turn desired political power. From 650 BC onwards the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants. The word derives from the non-pejorative Greek tyrannos meaning 'illegitimate ruler' although this was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike.1011 A growing population and shortage of land also seems to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states. In Sparta the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC an act without precedent or antecedent in ancient Greece. This practice allowed a social revolution to occur.12 The subjugated population thenceforth known as helots farmed and laboured for Sparta whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan Army in a permanently militarized state. Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers; this equality between rich and poor served to defuse the social conflict. These reforms attributed to the shadowy Lycurgus of Sparta were probably complete by 650 BC. Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century again resulting in civil strife. The Archon (chief magistrate) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "draconian") but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually the moderate reforms of Solon (594 BC) improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power gave Athens some stability. The Greek world in the mid 6th century BC. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens Sparta Corinth and Thebes. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries had resulted in emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily) Asia Minor and further afield. The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century by which time the Greek world had culturally and linguistically become much larger than the area of present-day Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities although they often retained religious and commercial links with them. In this period huge economic development occurred in Greece and also her overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing. There was a large improvement in the living standards of the population. Some studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household in the period from 800 BC to 300 BC increased five times which indicates a large increase in the average income of the population. In the second half of the 6th century Athens fell under the tyranny of Peisistratos and then his sons Hippias and Hipparchos. However in 510 BC at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Afterwards Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to prevent Athens from becoming a Spartan puppet Cleisthenes responded by proposing to his fellow citizens that Athens undergo a revolution: that all citizens share in political power regardless of status: that Athens become a "democracy". So enthusiastically did the Athenians take to this idea that having overthrown Isagoras and implemented Cleisthenes's reforms they were easily able to repel a Spartan-led three-pronged invasion aimed at restoring Isagoras.13 The advent of the democracy cured many of the ills of Athens and led to a 'golden age' for the Athenians. Classical Greece Main article: Classical Greece Early Athenian coin depicting the head of Athena on the obverse and her owl on the reverse - 5th century BC Attic Red-figure pottery kylix by the Triptolemos Painter ca. 480 BC (Paris Louvre) Delian League ("Athenian Empire") immediately before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC. 5th century Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War Athens and Sparta would soon have to become allies in the face of the largest external threat ancient Greece would see until the Roman conquest. After suppressing the Ionian Revolt a rebellion of the Greek cities of Ionia Darius I of Persia King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire decided to subjugate Greece. His invasion in 490 BC was ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon under Miltiades the Younger. Xerxes I of Persia son and successor of Darius I attempted his own invasion 10 years later but despite his larger army he suffered heavy casualties after the famous rearguard action at Thermopylae and victories for the allied Greeks at the Battles of Salamis and Plataea. The Greco-Persian Wars continued until 449 BC led by the Athenians and their Delian League during which time the Macedon Thrace the Aegean Islands and Ionia were all liberated from Persian influence. The dominant position of the maritime Athenian 'Empire' threatened Sparta and the Peloponnesian League of mainland Greek cities. Inevitably this led to conflict resulting in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). Though effectively a stalemate for much of the war Athens suffered a number of setbacks. The Plague of Athens in 430 BC followed by a disastrous military campaign known as the Sicilian Expedition severely weakened Athens. An estimated one-third of Athenians died including Pericles their leader.14 Sparta was able to foment rebellion amongst Athens's allies further reducing the Athenian ability to wage war. The decisive moment came in 405 BC when Sparta cut off the grain supply to Athens from the Hellespont. Forced to attack the crippled Athenian fleet was decisively defeated by the Spartans under the command of Lysander at Aegospotami. In 404 BC Athens sued for peace and Sparta dictated a predictably stern settlement: Athens lost her city walls (including the Long Walls) her fleet and all of her overseas possessions. 4th century Greece thus entered the 4th century under a Spartan hegemony but it was clear from the start that this was weak. A demographic crisis meant Sparta was overstretched and by 395 BC Athens Argos Thebes and Corinth felt able to challenge Spartan dominance resulting in the Corinthian War (395-387 BC). Another war of stalemates it ended with the status quo restored after the threat of Persian intervention on behalf of the Spartans. The Spartan hegemony lasted another 16 years until when attempting to impose their will on the Thebans the Spartans suffered a decisive defeat at Leuctra in 371 BC. The Theban general Epaminondas then led Theban troops into the Peloponnese whereupon other city-states defected from the Spartan cause. The Thebans were thus able to march into Messenia and free the population. Deprived of land and its serfs Sparta declined to a second-rank power. The Theban hegemony thus established was short-lived; at the battle of Mantinea in 362 BC Thebes lost her key leader Epaminondas and much of her manpower even though they were victorious in battle. In fact such were the losses to all the great city-states at Mantinea that none could establish dominance in the aftermath. The weakened state of the heartland of Greece coincided with the Rise of Macedon led by Philip II. In twenty years Philip had unified his kingdom expanded it north and west at the expense of Illyrian tribes and then conquered Thessaly and Thrace. His success stemmed from his innovative reforms to the Macedon army. Phillip intervened repeatedly in the affairs of the southern city-states culminating in his invasion of 338 BC. Decisively defeating an allied army of Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC) he became de facto hegemon of all of Greece except Sparta. He compelled the majority of the city-states to join the League of Corinth allying them to him and preventing them from warring with each other. Philip then entered into war against the Achemaenid Empire but was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis early on in the conflict. Alexander son and successor of Philip continued the war. Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia and completely destroyed the Achaemenid Empire annexing it to Macedon and earning himself the epithet 'the Great'. When Alexander died in 323 BC Greek power and influence was at its zenith. However there had been a fundamental shift away from the fierce independence and classical culture of the poleisand instead towards the developing Hellenistic culture. Hellenistic Greece The major Hellenistic realms included the Diadochi kingdoms:   Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter   Kingdom of Cassander   Kingdom of Lysimachus   Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator   Epirus Also shown on the map:   Greek colonies   Carthage (non-Greek)   Rome (non-Greek) The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BC. The kingdom of Pergamon occupied some of this area. Not shown: Indo-Greeks. Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great Hellenistic Period and Hellenistic civilization The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 BC which marked the end of the Wars of Alexander the Great to the annexation of Greece by the Roman Republic in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity it did mark the end of Greek political independence. During the Hellenistic period the importance of "Greece proper" (that is the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively. The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city-states. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration particularly of the young and ambitious to the new Greek empires in the east.15 Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake as far away as what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan where the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the 1st century BC. After the death of Alexander his empire was after quite some conflict divided amongst his generals resulting in the Ptolemaic Kingdom (based upon Egypt) the Seleucid Empire (based on the Levant Mesopotamia and Persia) and the Antigonid dynasty based in Macedon. In the intervening period the poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom although still nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom. The city-states formed themselves into two leagues; the Achaean League (including Thebes Corinth and Argos) and the Aetolian League (including Sparta and Athens). For much of the period until the Roman conquest these leagues were usually at war with each other and/or allied to different sides in the conflicts between the Diadochi (the successor states to Alexander's empire). Territories and expansion of the Indo-Greeks.16 The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive the Romans in typical fashion continued to make war on Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated although a rump survived until 64 BC whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman-Syrian War; when the Romans were victorious the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC bringing an end to the independence of all of Greece. Roman Greece Main article: Roman Greece Further information: Byzantine Greece The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule in 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. Macedonia becoming a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia's praefect. However some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation. The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC. Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC. Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco-Roman. The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome. Geography Regions Main article: Regions of ancient Greece Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent "barbarian" lands. The territory of Greece is mountainous and as a result ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions each with its own dialect cultural peculiarities and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts were a prominent feature of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains or on coastal plains and dominated a certain area around them. In the south lay the Peloponnese itself consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast) Messenia (southwest) Elis (west) Achaia (north) Korinthia (northeast) Argolis (east) and Arcadia (center). These names survive to the present day as prefectures of modern Greece though with somewhat different boundaries. Mainland Greece to the north nowadays known as Central Greece consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west Locris Doris and Phocis in the center while in the east lay Boeotia Attica and Megaris. Northeast lay Thessaly while Epirus lay to the northwest. Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north and consisted of Chaonia (north) Molossia (center) and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast corner was Macedonia17 originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions such as Elimeia Pieria and Orestis. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West beyond the Axius river into Eordaia Bottiaea Mygdonia and Almopia regions settled by Thracian tribes.18 To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north the Thracians to the northeast and the Illyrians with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict to the northwest. Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean in Anatolia. Colonies Main articles: Greek colonies and Magna Graecia Greek cities & colonies c. 550 BC. During the Archaic period the population of Greece grew beyond the capacity of its limited arable land (according to one estimate the population of ancient Greece increased by a factor larger than ten during the period from 800 BC to 400 BC increasing from a population of 800000 to a total estimated population of 10 to 13 million).19 From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion settling colonies in all directions. To the east the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea. Eventually Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present day Ukraine and Russia (Taganrog). To the west the coasts of Illyria Sicily and Southern Italy were settled followed by Southern France Corsica and even northeastern Spain. Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya. Modern Syracuse Naples Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae () Neapolis () Massalia () and Byzantion (). These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states boosting the economy of ancient Greece. Politics and society Cities and towns of ancient Greece Political structure Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more or less independent city-states (poleis). This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories. Undoubtedly the geography of Greecedivided and sub-divided by hills mountains and riverscontributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were 'one people'; they had the same religion same basic culture and same language. Furthermore the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe. Yet although these higher-level relationships existed they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics. The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks. Even when during the second Persian invasion of Greece a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece the vast majority of poleis remained neutral and after the Persian defeat the allies quickly returned to infighting.20 Thus the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were; firstly its fragmentary nature and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin; and secondly the particular focus on urban centres within otherwise tiny states. The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea which though they might count a certain Greek polis as their 'mother' (and remain sympathetic to her) were completely independent of the founding city. Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbours but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare. Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues membership of which was in a constant state of flux. Later in the Classical period the leagues would become fewer and larger be dominated by one city (particularly Athens Sparta and Thebes); and often poleis would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). Even after Philip II of Macedon 'conquered' the heartlands of ancient Greece he did not attempt to annex the territory or unify it into a new province but simply compelled most of the poleis to join his own Corinthian League. Government and law Main article: Ancient Greek law Initially many Greek city-states seem to have been petty kingdoms; there was often a city official carrying some residual ceremonial functions of the king (basileus) e.g. the archon basileus in Athens.21 However by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness most had already become aristocratic oligarchies. It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance in Athens the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary life-long chief magistracy (archon) by c. 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship. Through each stage more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole and away from a single individual. Inevitably the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities a tyrant (not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies) would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power. In a system racked with class conflict government by a 'strongman' was often the best solution. Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century. When this tyranny was ended the Athenians founded the world's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power. A citizens' assembly (the Ecclesia) for the discussion of city policy had existed since the reforms of Draco in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon (early 6th century) but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy the assembly became the de jure mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However non-citizens such as metics (foreigners living in Athens) or slaves had no political rights at all. After the rise of the democracy in Athens other city-states founded democracies. However many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece ruled through the whole period by not one but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of diarchy. The Kings of Sparta belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids descendants respectively of Eurysthenes and Procles. Both dynasty founders were believed to be twin sons of Aristodemus a Heraclid ruler. However the powers of these kings was trammeled by both a council of elders (the Gerousia) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings (the Ephors). Social structure Only free land owning native-born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city-state (later Pericles introduced exceptions to the native-born restriction). In most city-states unlike the situation in Rome social prominence did not allow special rights. Sometimes families controlled public religious functions but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government. In Athens the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta all male citizens were given the title of equal if they finished their education. However Spartan kings who served as the city-state's dual military and religious leaders came from two families. Slavery Main article: Slavery in ancient Greece Slaves had no power or status. They had the right to have a family and own property subject to their master's goodwill and permission but they had no political rights. By 600 BC chattel slavery had spread in Greece. By the 5th century BC slaves made up one-third of the total population in some city-states. Two-fifths (some authorities say four-fifths) of the population of Classical Athens were slaves.22 Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize. Most families owned slaves as household servants and labourers and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome freedmen did not become citizens. Instead they were mixed into the population of metics which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state. City-states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens public slaves were trained to look out for counterfeit coinage while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple's deity and Scythian slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions. Sparta had a special type of slaves called helots. Helots were Messenians enslaved during the Messenian Wars by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as hoplites. Their masters treated them harshly (every Spartiate male had to kill a helot as a right of passage) and helots often resorted to slave rebellions. Education Main article: Education in ancient Greece For most of Greek history education was private except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period some city-states established public schools. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how to read write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service. They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen. Girls also learned to read write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood. Boys went to school at the age of seven or went to the barracks if they lived in Sparta. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic kitharistes for music and dancing and Paedotribae for sports. Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. Classes were held in teachers' private houses and included reading writing mathematics singing and playing the lyre and flute. When the boy became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling running and throwing discus and javelin. In Athens some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture sciences music and the arts. The schooling ended at age 18 followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years.23 A small number of boys continued their education after childhood as in the Spartan agoge. A crucial part of a wealthy teenager's education was a mentorship with an elder which in a few places and times may have included pederastic love. The teenager learned by watching his mentor talking about politics in the agora helping him perform his public duties exercising with him in the gymnasium and attending symposia with him. The richest students continued their education by studying with famous teachers. Some of Athens' greatest such schools included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia. Economy Main articles: Economy of ancient Greece Agriculture of ancient Greece and Slavery in ancient Greece At its economic height in the 5th and 4th centuries BC ancient Greece was the most advanced economy in the world. According to some economic historians it was one of the most advanced preindustrial economies. This is demonstrated by the average daily wage of the Greek worker which was in terms of wheat about 12 kg. This was more than 3 times the average daily wage of an Egyptian worker during the Roman period about 3.75 kg.24 Warfare Main articles: Ancient Greek warfare and Army of ancient Macedon At least in the Archaic Period the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece with many competing city-states increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies the city-states relied on their own citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns as citizens would need to return to their own professions (especially in the case of for example farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. When battles occurred they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Casualties were slight compared to later battles rarely amounting to more than 5% of the losing side but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front. The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars. To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city-states (the exact composition changing over time) allowing the pooling of resources and division of labour. Although alliances between city-states occurred before this time nothing on this scale had been seen before. The rise of Athens and Sparta as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the Peloponnesian War which saw further development of the nature of warfare strategy and tactics. Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies naval battle and blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society. Culture Philosophy Main article: Ancient Greek philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. In many ways it had an important influence on modern philosophy as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to medieval Muslim philosophers and Islamic scientists to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization. Literature Main articles: Ancient Greek literature Greek tragedy Greek comedy and Theatre of ancient Greece Ancient Greek society placed considerable emphasis upon literature. Many authors consider the western literary tradition to have begun with the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey which remain giants in the literary canon for their skillful and vivid depictions of war and peace honor and disgrace love and hatred. Notable among later Greek poets was Sappho who defined in many ways lyric poetry as a genre. A playwright named Aeschylus changed Western literature forever when he introduced the ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting. In doing so he essentially invented "drama": his Oresteia trilogy of plays is seen as his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were Sophocles and Euripides. Sophocles is credited with skillfully developing irony as a literary technique most famously in his play Oedipus the King. Euripedes conversely used plays to challenge societal norms and moresa hallmark of much of Western literature for the next 2300 years and beyondand his works such as Medea The Bacchae and The Trojan Women are still notable for their ability to challenge our perceptions of propriety gender and war. Aristophanes a comic playwright defines and shapes the idea of comedy almost as Aeschylus had shaped tragedy as an art formAristophanes' most famous plays include the Lysistrata and The Frogs. Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues of Plato who converted the give and take of Socratic questioning into written form. Aristotle Plato's student wrote dozens of works on many scientific disciplines but his greatest contribution to literature was likely his Poetics which lays out his understanding of drama and thereby establishes the first criteria for literary criticism. Science and technology Main articles: List of Graeco-Roman geographers Greek astronomy Greek mathematics Medicine in ancient Greece and Ancient Greek technology Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of mathematics including the basic rules of geometry the idea of formal mathematical proof and discoveries in number theory mathematical analysis applied mathematics and approached close to establishing the integral calculus. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians including Pythagoras Euclid and Archimedes are still used in mathematical teaching today. The Greeks developed astronomy which they treated as a branch of mathematics to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive.25 Eratosthenes using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy.26 In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes. The Antikythera mechanism a device for calculating the movements of planets dates from about 80 BC and was the first ancestor of the astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens accompanied by a replica. The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a physician of the Classical period and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine"272829 in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy) thus making medicine a profession.3031 Art and architecture Main articles: Art in ancient Greece and Architecture of ancient Greece The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek Central Asian and Indian cultures resulting in Greco-Buddhist art with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world. Religion and mythology Main articles: Ancient Greek religion Hellenistic religion and Greek mythology Greek mythology consists of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their religious practices. The main Greek gods were the twelve Olympians Zeus his wife Hera Poseidon Ares Hermes Hephaestus Aphrodite Athena Apollo Artemis Demeter and Hades. Other important deities included Hebe Helios Dionysus Persephone and Heracles (a demi-god). Zeus' parents were Kronos and Rhea who also were the parents of Poseidon Hades Hera Hestia and Demeter. Legacy Further information: Classics The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language politics educational systems philosophy science and the arts. It became the Leitkultur of the Roman Empire to the point of marginalizing native Italic traditions. As Horace put it Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes / intulit agresti Latio (Epistulae 2.1.156f.) "Captive Greece took captive her fierce conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic Latium." Via the Roman Empire Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general. The Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek culture directly without Latin intermediation and the preservation of classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the Western European Renaissance. A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the Neoclassicism movement in 18th and 19th century Europe and the Americas. See also Ancient Greece portal Outline of ancient Greece Regions of ancient Greece Outline of ancient Rome Outline of ancient Egypt Outline of classical studies Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity Classical demography History of science in Classical Antiquity Ancient Macedonia Ancient Macedon Further reading Goodrich S. G. (1849). A pictorial history of Greece: Ancient and modern. New York: Huntington & Savage References Notes Carol G. Thomas (1988). Paths from ancient Greece. BRILL. pp. 2750. ISBN 9789004088467. http://books.google.com/booksidNAwVAAAAIAAJ&pgPA27. Retrieved 12 June 2011.  Richard Tarnas The Passion of the Western Mind (New York: Ballantine Books 1991). Colin Hynson Ancient Greece (Milwaukee: World Almanac Library 2006) 4. Carol G. Thomas Paths from Ancient Greece (Leiden Netherlands: E. J. Brill 1988). Pomeroy Sarah B. (1999). Ancient Greece: a political social and cultural history. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195097429. http://books.google.com/idINUT5sZku1UC.  Grant Michael (1995). Greek and Roman historians: information and misinformation. Routledge 1995. p. 74. ISBN 9780415117708. http://books.google.com/idIUNxvi0kbd8C&dq.  Hall Jonathan M. (2007). A history of the archaic Greek world ca. 1200-479 BCE. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780631226673. http://books.google.com/idWGNH-oxXiAUC&dq.  Sealey Raphael (1976). A history of the Greek city states ca. 700-338 B.C.. University of California Press. pp. 1011. ISBN 9780631226673. http://books.google.com/idkAvbhZrv4gUC&dq.  Slavoj iek (18 April 2011). Living in the End Times. Verso. p. 218. ISBN 9781844677023. http://books.google.com/booksidMIz6BPT23Q4C&pgPA218. Retrieved 12 June 2011.  "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. http://www.etymonline.com/index.phptermtyrant. Retrieved 2009-01-06.  "tyrantDefinitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tyrant. Retrieved 2009-01-06.  Holland T. Persian Fire p69-70. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1 Holland T. Persian Fire p131-138. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1 Typhoid Fever Behind Fall of Athens. LiveScience. January 23 2006. Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered. BBC News. August 7 2007. Sources for the map: "Historical Atlas of Peninsular India" Oxford University Press (dark blue continuous line) A.K. Narain "The coins of the Indo-Greek kings" (dark blue dotted line see File:Indo-GreekWestermansNarain.jpg for reference) Westermans "Atlas zur Weltgeschichte" (light blue dotted line see File:WestermannVerlagIndoGreeks.jpg for reference). "Macedonia". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354266/Macedonia. Retrieved 2008-11-03.  The Cambridge ancient history: The fourth century B.C. edited by D.M. Lewis et al. I E S Edwards Cambridge University Press D. M. Lewis John Boardman Cyril John Gadd Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprire Hammond 2000 ISBN 0521233488 pp. 723-724. Population of the Greek city-states Holland T. Persian Fire Abacus ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1 Holland T. Persian Fire p94 ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1 Slavery in Ancient Greece. Britannica Student Encyclopdia. Angus Konstam: "Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece" pp. 94-95. Thalamus publishing UK 2003 ISBN 1-904668-16-X W. Schieder "Real slave prices and the relative cost of slave labor in the Greco-Roman world" Ancient Society vol. 35 2005. Pedersen Early Physics and Astronomy pp. 55-6 Pedersen Early Physics and Astronomy pp. 45-7 Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus. U.S. National Library of Medicine Hippocrates Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 2009-10-31. Strong W.F.; Cook John A. (July 2007). "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys". Global Media Journal Indian Edition. ISSN: 1550-7521. http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php. dead link Garrison Fielding H. (1966). History of Medicine. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 9293.  Nuland Sherwin B. (1988). Doctors. Knopf. p. 5. ISBN 0394551303.  Bibliography Charles Freeman (1996). Egypt Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press.  Paul MacKendrick (1962). The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands. St. Martin's Press.  External links The Canadian Museum of CivilizationGreece Secrets of the Past Ancient Greece website from the British Museum Economic history of ancient Greece The Greek currency history Limenoscope an ancient Greek ports database The Ancient Theatre Archive Greek and Roman theatre architecture Illustrated Greek HistoryDr. Janice Siegel Department of Classics Hampden-Sydney College Virginia v d eAncient Greece Outline       Timeline Periods Cycladic civilization  Minoan civilization  Mycenaean civilization  Greek Dark Ages  Archaic period  Classical Greece  Hellenistic Greece  Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea  Hellespont  Macedonia  Sparta  Athens  Corinth  Thebes  Thermopylae  Ionian Sea  Ionia  Aeolis  Doris  Antioch  Alexandria  Pergamon  Miletus  Ephesus  Delphi  Delos   Olympia  Troy  Rhodes  Crete  Peloponnesus  Epirus  Cyprus  Pontus  Magna Graecia  Ancient Greek Colonies Politics Apella  Ecclesia  Heliaia  Boule  Agora  Graph paranmn  Areopagus  League of Corinth  Diadochi Rulers Kings of Sparta  Kings of Athens  Archons of Athens  Kings of Macedon  Kings of Pontus  Kings of Paionia  Roman Emperors  Kings of Kommagene  Kings of Lydia  Attalid Kings of Pergamon  Diadochi   Kings of Argos  Tyrants of Syracuse Life Agriculture  Clothing  Cuisine  Democracy  Economy  Education  Festivals  Homosexuality  Law  Marriage  Mourning ritual  Olympic Games  Pederasty  Philosophy  Prostitution  Religion  Slavery  Warfare  Wine Military Wars  Army of Macedon  Antigonid Macedonian army  Pezhetairoi  Hoplite  Seleucid army  Hellenistic armies  Phalanx formation  Peltast  Sarissa  Xyston  Sacred Band of Thebes People Philosophers Anaxagoras  Anaximander  Anaximenes  Antisthenes  Aristotle  Democritus  Diotima of Mantinea  Diogenes of Sinope  Epicurus  Empedocles  Heraclitus  Hypatia  Leucippus  Gorgias  Parmenides  Plato  Protagoras  Pythagoras  Socrates  Thales  Themistoclea  Zeno Authors Aeschylus  Aesop  Aristophanes  Euripides  Herodotus  Hesiod  Homer  Lucian  Menander  Pindar  Plutarch  Polybius  Sappho  Sophocles  Thucydides  Xenophon Others Alexander the Great  Alcibiades  Archimedes  Aspasia  Demosthenes  Euclid  Hipparchus  Hippocrates  Leonidas  Lycurgus  Milo of Croton  Pericles  Ptolemy  Solon  Themistocles Buildings Parthenon  Temple of Artemis  Acropolis  Ancient Agora  Temple of Zeus at Olympia  Temple of Hephaestus  Samothrace temple complex Arts Architecture  Coinage  Literature  Music  Pottery  Sculpture  Theatre Sciences Astronomy  Mathematics  Medicine  Technology Language Proto-Greek  Mycenaean  Homeric  Dialects (Aeolic  Arcadocypriot  Attic  Doric  Ionic  Locrian  Macedonian  Pamphylian)  Koine Writing Linear A  Linear B  Greek alphabet Lists Ancient Greek tribes  Greeks  Thracian Greeks  Cities in Epirus  Ancient Macedonians  Playwrights  Theatres  Poets  Tyrants  Philosophers  Cities  Mythological figures  Place names Portal v d eClassical antiquity by region Europa:  Graecia  Italia  Gallia  Dacia  Thracia  Illyria  Hispania  Britannia  Germania  Asia:  Scythia  Anatolia  Syria  Arabia  Africa:  Libya  Aegyptus v d eAncient Greek and Roman wars Wars of ancient Greece Trojan War  Messenian Wars  Lelantine War  Sicilian Wars  Greco-Persian Wars  Aeginetan War  Wars of the Delian League  Samian War  Peloponnesian War  Corinthian War  Sacred Wars (First Second Third)  Social War (357355 BC)  Rise of Macedon  Wars of Alexander the Great  Wars over Alexander's empire  Lamian War  Chremonidean War  Cleomenean War  Social War (220217 BC)   Cretan War  Aetolian War  War against Nabis  Maccabean Revolt  Wars of the Roman Republic War with the Latin League  Samnite Wars  Latin War  Pyrrhic War  Punic Wars (First Second Third)  Macedonian Wars (Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian)  Jugurthine War  Cimbrian War  Roman Servile Wars (First Second Third)  Social War  Civil wars of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (First Second)  Mithridatic Wars (First Second Third)  Gallic Wars  Julius Caesar's civil war  End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian Liberators' Sicilian Fulvia's Final) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic Wars (Marcomannic Alamannic Gothic Visigothic)  Wars in Britain  Wars of Boudica  Armenian War  Civil War of 69  Jewish Wars  Domitian's Dacian War  Trajan's Dacian Wars  Parthian Wars  RomanPersian Wars  Civil Wars of the Third Century  Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ancient Greece