This article is about the South American country. For other uses see Bolivia (disambiguation). Plurinational State of Bolivia Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (Spanish) Bulivya Mamallaqta (Quechua) Wuliwya Suyu (Aymara) Flag Coat of arms Motto: "La union es la fuerza!"  (Spanish) "Unity is (the) strength!" Anthem: Bolivianos el hado propicio   (Spanish) "Bolivians a most favorable destiny" Wiphala of Qulla Suyu1: Capital Sucre (official capital city)2 192S 6515W / 19.033S 65.25W / -19.033; -65.25 Largest city Santa Cruz de la Sierra 1748S 6310W / 17.8S 63.167W / -17.8; -63.167 Official language(s) Spanish Quechua Aymara and 34 other native languages34 Ethnic groups  55% Amerindian (Quechua and Aymara) 30% Mestizo 15% White5 Demonym Bolivian Government Unitary Presidential Republic  -  President Evo Morales  -  Vice President lvaro Garca Independence from Spain   -  Declared 6 August 1825   -  Recognized 21 July 1847  Area  -  Total 1098581 km2 (28th) 424163 sq mi   -  Water (%) 1.29 Population  -  2010 estimate 109077786 (84th)  -  2001 census 8280184   -  Density 8.9/km2 (220th) 23/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate  -  Total $47.882 billion7   -  Per capita $45927  GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate  -  Total $19.373 billion7   -  Per capita $18587  Gini (2006) 59.28 (high)  HDI (2010) 0.6439 (medium) (95th) Currency Boliviano (BOB) Time zone (UTC-4) Drives on the Right ISO 3166 code BO Internet TLD .bo Calling code +591

Coordinates: 164243S 643958W / 16.712S 64.666W / -16.712; -64.666 Bolivia (i /blvi/) officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia1011 (Quechua: Bulivya Mamallaqta Spanish: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia IPA: estao pluinasjonal de olija) is a landlocked country in central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east Paraguay and Argentina to the south Chile by the south west and Peru by the west. Prior to European colonization the Andean region of Bolivia was a part of the Inca Empire  the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. During most of the Spanish colonial period this territory was called Upper Peru and was under the administration of the Viceroyalty of Peru which included most of Spain's South American colonies. After declaring independence in 1809 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic named for Simn Bolvar on 6 August 1825. Bolivia has struggled through periods of political instability dictatorships and economic woes.

Bolivia is a Democratic Republic that is divided into nine departments. Its geography is varied from the peaks of the Andes in the West to the Eastern Lowlands situated within the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a Medium Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 60%. Its main economic activities include agriculture forestry fishing mining and manufacturing goods such as textiles clothing refined metals and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals especially tin.

The Bolivian population estimated at 10 million is multiethnic including Amerindians Mestizos Europeans Asians and Africans. The main language spoken is Spanish although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common and all three as well as 34 other indigenous languages are official. The large number of different cultures within Bolivia has contributed greatly to a wide diversity in fields such as art cuisine literature and music. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Colonial period 2.2 Independence and subsequent wars 2.3 Economic instability and continued wars 2.4 Nationalist Revolutionary Movement 2.5 CIA activities and Che Guevara 2.6 Military governments: Garca Meza and Siles Zuazo 2.7 Snchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy 2.8 Plan de Todos 2.9 The Morales administration 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Geology 4 Economy 5 Demographics 5.1 Health 5.2 Religion 5.3 Language 6 Politics and government 6.1 Legislative branch 6.2 Executive branch 6.2.1 Prisons 6.3 Electoral branch 6.4 Administrative divisions 7 Military 8 Civil aviation 8.1 TAM (Transporte Areo Militar) 8.2 TAB (Transportes Areos Bolivianos) 9 Culture 10 Education 11 See also 12 Further reading 13 References 14 External links 15 Related information Etymology

Bolivia was named for Simn Bolvar a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence.12 Antonio Jos de Sucre had been given the option by Bolvar to either keep Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) under the newly formed Republic of Peru to unite with the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata or to formally declare its independence from the Viceroyalty of Peru that had dominated most of the region. Sucre opted to create a new nation and with local support named it in honor of Simn Bolvar.13

However the original name given to the newly formed country was Republic of Bolvar. The name would not change to Bolivia until some days later when congressman Manuel Martn Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus comes Rome then from Bolvar comes Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de Rmulo Roma de Bolvar Bolivia). The name stuck and was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825.14

In 2009 a new constitution changed the country's name from the "Republic of Bolivia" to the "Plurinational State of Bolivia" in recognition of the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the enhanced position of Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution.151617 History Main article: History of Bolivia Tiwanaku at its largest territorial extent AD 950

The region that is now known as Bolivia has been constantly occupied for over 2000 years when the Aymara arrived in the region. Present-day Aymara associate themselves with an advanced civilization situated at Tiwanaku in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates as early as 1500 BC as a small agriculturally based village.18

The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800 becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates at its maximum extent the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometres and had between 15000 30000 inhabitants.19 However satellite imaging was used recently to map the extent of fossilized suka kollus across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285000 and 1482000 people.20

Around AD 400 Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru Bolivia and Chile. However Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many aspects. In order to expand its reach Tiwanaku became very political creating colonies trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependant) and state cults.21 The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states that "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population."22 Tiwanaku continued to absorb cultures rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists have seen a dramatic adoption of Tiwanaku ceramics in the cultures who became part of the Tiwanaku empire. Tiwanaku gained its power through the trade it implemented between all of the cities within its empire.21 The elites gained their status by the surplus of food they gained from all of the regions and then by having the ability to redistribute the food among all the people. This is where the control of llama herds became very significant to Tiwanaku. The llama herds were essential for carrying goods back and forth between the centre and the periphery as well as symbolizing the distance between the commoners and the elites. Their power continued to grow in this manner of a surplus of resources until about AD 950. At this time a dramatic shift in climate occurred.23 At this point in time there was a significant drop in precipitation for the Titicaca Basin. Some archaeologists even venture to say that a great drought occurred. As the rain became less and less many of the cities further away from Lake Titicaca began to produce fewer crops to give to the elites. As the surplus of food ran out for the elites their power began to fall. The capital city became the last place of production due to the resiliency of the raised fields but in the end even the intelligent design of the fields was no match for the weather. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production their main source of power dried up. The land was not inhabited for many years after that.23 Inca Expansion (14381527) Between 1438 and 1527 the Incan empire on a mass expansion acquired much of what is now western Bolivia. The Incans would not maintain control of the region for long however as the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak. As such the Spanish conquest would be remarkably easy. Colonial period The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524 and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was then known as "Upper Peru" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Platamodern Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining town Potos soon produced fabulous wealth becoming the largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150000 people.24 By the late 16th century Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish Empire.25 A steady stream of natives served as labor force (the Spanish employed the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita).26 Upper Peru was bounded to Viceroyalty of the Ro de la Plata in 1776. Tpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March 1781 during which 20000 people died.27 As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars sentiment against colonial rule grew. Independence and subsequent wars The struggle for independence started in the city of Sucre in 1809 with the Chuquisaca Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city). That revolution which created a local government Junta was followed by the La Paz revolution during which Bolivia actually declared independence. Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by the Spanish authorities but the following year the Spanish American wars of independence raged across the continent. Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns all of which were defeated and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Antonio Jos de Sucre with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of Simn Bolvar. After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6 August 1825 named Bolivia in honor of Bolvar. In 1836 Bolivia under the rule of Marshal Andrs de Santa Cruz invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president General Luis Jos de Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina Chile's ally declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the Argentinian expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa. On the same field the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army surrendered unconditionally and signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would withdraw from Peru-Bolivia Chile would return captured Confederate ships economic relations would be normalized and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. In Chile public outrage over the treaty forced the government to reject it. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved. Following the independence of Peru Peruvian president General Agustn Gamarra invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingavi on 20 November 1841 where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General Jos Ballivin then mounted a counter-offensive capturing the Peruvian port of Arica. Later both sides signed a peace treaty in 1842 putting a final end to the war. Economic instability and continued wars Manuel Rivera-Ortiz: Widow Of The Mines Potos Bolivia 2004 A period of political and economic instability in the early to mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. Then in the War of the Pacific (187983) against Chile it lost its access to the sea and the adjoining rich salitre (saltpeter) fields together with the port of Antofagasta. Since independence Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries in wars. It also lost the state of Acre in the Acre War; important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories and facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil it was forced to sign the Treaty of Petrpolis in 1903 in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864-71) traded the land for what he called "a magnificent white horse" and Acre was subsequently flooded by Brazilians which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil. In the late 19th century an increase in the world price of gold brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability. During the early 20th century tin replaced gold as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century.28 Living conditions of the native people who constitute most of the population remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status they had no access to education economic opportunity and political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (193235) where Bolivia lost a great part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute marked a turning-point.293031 Nationalist Revolutionary Movement A llama in the Laguna Colorada a shallow salt lake in the southwestern Bolivian sector of the Altiplano. The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Vctor Paz Estenssoro the MNR having strong popular pressure introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines. 12 years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964 a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President Ren Barrientos Ortuo a former member of the junta elected president in 1966 led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in popularity of The Presidente Juan Jose Torres the military the MNR and others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer Surez as president in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then impatient with schisms in the coalition he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency but human rights violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978 and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil. CIA activities and Che Guevara Main article: CIA activities in Bolivia The CIA had been active in providing finances and training to the Bolivian military in 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara was killed by a team of CIA officers and Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967 in Bolivia. CIA reported that Guevara was captured on 8 October as a result of the clash with the Cuban-led guerrillas. He had a wound in his leg but was otherwise in fair condition. At 1150 hours on 9 October the Second Ranger Battalion received direct orders from Bolivian Army Headquarters in La Paz to kill Guevara. These orders were carried out at 1315 hours the same day with a burst of fire from an M-2 automatic rifle. Felix Rodriguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara.32 Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution order he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army." Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama and "I could have tried to falsify the command to the troops and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had wanted" said Mr Rodriguez but he chose to "let history run its course" as desired by Bolivia."33 Military governments: Garca Meza and Siles Zuazo Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'tat counter-coups and caretaker governments. In 1980 General Luis Garca Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'tat that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced "Bueno me quedo" or "All right; I'll stay in office."34 He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human-rights-abuses drug-trafficking and economic mismanagement; during his presidency the inflation that later crippled the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for various crimes by attorney Juan del Granado including murder Garca Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year prison sentence in 1995. After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981 three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982 Hernn Siles Zuazo again became president 22 years after the end of his first term of office (195660). Snchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was the capitalization program under which investors typically foreign acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises such as the state petroleum corporation telecommunications system airlines railroads and electric utilities in return for agreed upon capital investments. Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region from 1994 through 1996. The de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca that was being processed into cocaine. The coca leaf has long been part of the Bolivian culture as indigenous workers have traditionally used the leaf for its properties as a mild stimulant and appetite suppressant. During this time the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia the Central Obrera Boliviana (COB) became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members including construction and factory workers. The state also used selective martial law to keep the disruptions caused by the teachers to a minimum. The teachers were led by Trotskyites and were considered to be the most militant union in the COB. Their downfall was a major blow to the COB which also became mired in internal corruption and infighting in 1996. In the 1997 elections General Hugo Banzer leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (197178) won 22% of the vote while the MNR candidate won 18%. General Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN MIR UCS and CONDEPA parties which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president and he was inaugurated on 6 August 1997. During the election campaign Banzer had promised to suspend the privatization of the state-owned oil-company YPFB. But this seemed unlikely to happen considering Bolivia's weak position globally. The Banzer government basically continued the free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that regional global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil lower world prices for export commodities and reduced employment in the coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.35 At the outset of his government President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic four-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. Those left unemployed by coca eradication streamed into the cities especially El Alto the slum-neighborhood of La Paz. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).36 In 2000 the country experienced large scale protests and uprising against foreign company take over of the water resources in several regions which effectively doubled the water prices. See Cochabamba Protests. The Cochabamba protests of 2000 also known as the Cochabamba Water Wars were a series of protests that took place in Cochabamba Bolivia's third largest city between January 1999 and April 2000 because of the privatization of the municipal water supply. On 6 August 2001 Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramrez completed the final year of his term. In the June 2002 national elections former President Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate Manfred Reyes Villa of the New Republican Force (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Snchez de Lozada on 4 August 2002. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora virtually ensured the election of Snchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation) anti-corruption and social inclusion. La Paz skyline. The city is the highest capital in the world. In 2003 the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003 the government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes which erupted when a caravan of oil trucks escorted by police and soldiers deploying tanks and heavy-caliber machine guns tried to breach a barricade. On 17 October 2003 Evo Morales' supporters from Cochabamba tried to march into Santa Cruz de la Sierra the largest city of the eastern lowlands where support was strong for the president. They were turned back. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed Sanchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president Carlos Mesa invested he left on a commercially scheduled flight for the United States. In March 2004 the new president Carlos Mesa announced that his government would hold a series of rallies around the country and at its embassies abroad demanding that Chile return to Bolivia a stretch of seacoast that the country lost in 1884 after the end of the War of the Pacific. Chile has traditionally refused to negotiate on the issue but Mesa nonetheless made this policy a central point of his administration. However the country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005 Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005 but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005 after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress which was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court Eduardo Rodrguez was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa. Plan de Todos Mobilizing against neoliberalism as a common enemy of the people the indigenous population of the Andean region was able to achieve widespread government reform.37 Bolivia in particular was quite successful due to the prominence of an indigenous population and the persistence of reformist policies. In 1993 Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada ran for president in alliance with the Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement which inspired indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-aware policies.38 Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada (colloquially known as Goni) was able to shift Bolivian society by selling state firms and constitutionally acknowledging the existence of a multicultural and multiethnic population. Current development has led to a neoliberal citizenship regime in which civil rights are expressed through private property ownership formal democracy and representation and an investment in the maintaining of infrastructure. In the 1990s Bolivia introduced the Plan de Todos which led to the decentralization of government introduction of intercultural bilingual education implementation of agrarian legislation and privatization of state owned businesses. The Plan de Todos main incentive was to encourage popular participation among the Bolivian people. The law recognizes the existence of barrios and rural communities as Territorially Based Organizations (TBOs) and has oversight boards known as rmiles de agilancia or vigilance committees that are responsible for overseeing municipal governments and planning projects. The Plan formally acknowledged the existence of 311 municipalities which benefited directly based on the size of their populations. The Plan de Todos inspired the development of a market democracy with minimally regulated capitalist economy. The Plan explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the Plan most state owned enterprises (SOEs) besides mines were sold.39 This privatization of SOEs led to innovative neoliberal structuring that acknowledged a diverse population within Bolivia.40 The Law of Popular Participation41 gave municipalities the responsibility of maintaining various infrastructures (and offering services): health education systems of irrigation which stripped the responsibility away from the state. The state provides municipalities with twenty percent of federal tax revenue so that each municipality can adequately maintain these infrastructures. The Law also redistributes political power to the local level. The Morales administration Main article: Presidency of Evo Morales Evo Morales' inauguration as President The two main candidates for the 2005 Bolivian presidential election held on 18 December 2005 were Juan Evo Morales Ayma of the MAS Party and Jorge Quiroga leader of the Social and Democratic Power (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the Accin Democrtica Nacionalista (ADN) Party. Morales won the election with 53.7% of the votes an absolute majority unusual in Bolivian elections. He was sworn in on 22 January 2006 for a five-year term. Prior to his official inauguration in La Paz he was inaugurated in an Aymara ritual at the archeological site of Tiwanaku before a crowd of thousands of Aymara people and representatives of leftist movements from across Latin America. Though highly symbolic this ritual was not historically based and primarily represented native Aymaras not the main Quechua-speaking population. Since the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century this region of South America where there is a majority native population has been ruled mostly by descendants of European immigrants. On 1 May 2006 Morales caused controversy when he announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets. While stating that the initiative would not be an expropriation Morales sent Bolivian troops to occupy 56 gas installations simultaneously including the two Petrobras-owned refineries which provide over 90% of Bolivia's refining-capacity. All foreign energy firms were required to sign new contracts within 180 days giving Bolivia majority ownership and up to 82% of revenues for the largest natural gas fields. All such firms signed contracts. Reports from the Bolivian government and the companies involved are contradictory as to plans for future investment.citation needed By far the biggest customer for Bolivian hydrocarbons has been Brazil which imports two-thirds of Bolivia's natural gas via pipelines operated by the semi-private Petrobras. Since gas can only be exported from landlocked Bolivia via Petrobras' large (and expensive) pipelines the supplier and customer are strongly linked. Petrobras has announced plans to produce enough natural gas by 2011 to replace that now supplied by Bolivia. Bolivia's position is strengthened by the knowledge that hydrocarbon reserves are more highly valued now than at the times of previous nationalizations and by the pledged support of President Hugo Chvez of Venezuela. Fulfilling a campaign promise Morales opened on 6 August 2006 the Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.42 Problems immediately arose when unable to garner the two-thirds votes needed to include controversial provisions in the constitutional draft Morales' party announced that only a simple majority would be needed to draft individual articles while two-thirds needed to pass the document in full. Violent protests arose in December 2006 in parts of the country for both two-thirds and departmental autonomy mostly in the eastern third of the country where much of the hydrocarbon wealth is located. MAS and its supports believed two-thirds voting rules would give an effective veto for all constitutional changes to the conservative minority. In August 2007 more conflicts arose in Sucre as the city demanded the discussion of the seat of government inside the assembly hoping the executive and legislative branch could return to the city but assembly and the government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical and politically undesirable. The conflict turned into violence and the assembly was moved to a military area in Oruro. Although the main opposition party boycotted the session a constitutional draft was approved on 24 November. In May 2008 Evo Morales was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. Bolivia has ratified the treaty. In the 2009 national general elections Evo Morales was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote. His party Movement for Socialism also won a two-thirds majority in both houses of the National Congress. Geography Main article: Geography of Bolivia Map of Bolivia At 1098580 square kilometres (424160 sq mi) Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country.43 It lies between latitudes 9 and 23S and longitudes 57 and 70W. Bolivia was a landlocked nation from 1879 to 1992 from when it lost its coastal department of Litoral to Chile in the War of the Pacific. However it does have access to the Atlantic via the Paraguay River. Though no ports on the Pacific yet exist under Bolivian sovereign rule in 1992 a coastal parcel of land was given to Bolivia by Peru. In 2010 this was expanded into a 99-year lease allowing the development of a port and naval station on a 3.6 square kilometer land parcel 18 kilometers south of Peru's port of Ilo. However since no ports yet exist on this land Bolivia is in effect still landlocked. 44 Many ecological zones are represented within Bolivia's territory. The western highlands of the country are situated in the Andes and include the Bolivian Altiplano. The eastern lowlands include large sections of Amazonian rainforests and the Chaco Plain. The highest peak is Nevado Sajama at 6542 metres (21463 ft) located in the Oruro Department. Lake Titicaca is located on the border between Bolivia and Peru. The Salar de Uyuni the world's largest salt flat lies in the southwest corner of the country in Potos Department. Climate Dust Storm over Bolivia. The weather in Bolivia can vary drastically from one climatic zone to another. The summer months in Bolivia are November through March. The weather is typically warmer and wetter during these months. April through October the winter months are typically colder and drier. In the highlands the weather can be very cold and temperatures frequently go below zero at night especially on the Altiplano. Snow is common in Potos during the winter months and sometimes also falls on La Paz and Oruro. In contrast winter in Sucre Cochabamba and Tarija on the Cordillera Real is a time of blue skies and comfortable temperatures. The weather in the rainforest is usually very hot and is often very wet. The drier period of the year is May to October. The section of the rainforest that borders the Cordillera Real of the Andes Mountains is a bit cooler but still very wet. As altitude declines the temperature rises. Additionally many rivers and aquatic zones will dry up very noticeably in winter and then flood in summer creating an unpredictable landscape. Geology Main article: Geology of Bolivia The geology of Bolivia compromises a variety of different lithologies as well as tectonic and sedimentary environments. On a synoptic scale geological units coincide with topographical units to begin the country is divided into a mountainous western area affected by the subduction processes in the Pacific and an eastern lowlands of stable platforms and shields. Economy Main article: Economy of Bolivia Bolivia is one of the poorest and least developed countries in Latin America despite being rich in natural resources. Bolivia's 2002 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled USD $7.9 billion. Economic growth is about 2.5% per year and inflation was expected to be between 3% and 4% in 2002 (it was under 2% in 2001). Bolivia was rated 'Repressed' by the 2010 Index of Economic Freedom.45 However despite a series of mostly political setbacks between 2006 and 2009 the Morales administration has spurred growth higher than at any point in the preceding 30 years. The growth was accompanied by a moderate decrease in inequality.46 Cochabamba Bolivia's current economic situation remains lackluster a factor that can be linked to several factors from the past three decades. The first major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a dramatic fall in the price of tin during the early 1980s which impacted one of Bolivia's main sources of income and one of its major mining-industries.47 The second major economic blow came at the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s as economic aid was withdrawn by western countries who had previously tried to keep a market-liberal regime in power through financial support. Since 1985 the government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability creating conditions for sustained growth and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service in recent years has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market-liberal policies especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment and foreign ownership of companies enjoys virtually no restrictions in Bolivia.48 The Central Bank of Bolivia Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America.49 The government has a long-term sales-agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The government held a binding referendum in 2005 on the Hydrocarbon Law. The US Geological Service estimates that Bolivia has 5.4 million cubic tonnes of lithium which represents 50%70% of world reserves. The light metal is used to make high-capacity batteries used in electric cars and such. The spinoff effect of lithium mining could cause Bolivia to become the "Saudi Arabia of the Green World." However to mine for it would involve disturbing the country's salt flats (called Salar de Uyuni) an important natural feature which boosts tourism in the region. The government does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape to meet the rising world demand for lithium.50 In April 2000 Hugo Banzer the former President of Bolivia signed a contract with Aguas del Tunari a private consortium to operate and improve the water supply in Bolivia's fourth-largest city Cochabamba. Shortly thereafter the company tripled the water rates in that city an action which resulted in protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water.5152 Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract. Bolivian exports were $1.3 billion in 2002 from a low of $652 million in 1991. Imports were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian tariffs are a uniformly low 10% with capital equipment charged only 5%. Bolivia's trade-deficit was $460 million in 2002. Salt mounds in Salar de Uyuni. Each mound is about a meter high. Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia is a member of the Andean Community of Nations and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries. The United States remains Bolivia's largest trading partner. In 2002 the United States exported $283 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $162 million. Camino a Samaipata Santa Cruz Bolivia Agriculture accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. Soybeans are the major cash crop sold into the Andean Community market. Bolivia's government remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2002 the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign creditors with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987 though economic crises in recent years have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. Uro person on floating an islet in Titicaca. The rescheduling of agreements granted by the Paris Club has allowed the individual creditor countries to apply very soft terms to the rescheduled debt. As a result some countries have forgiven substantial amounts of Bolivia's bilateral debt. The U.S. government reached an agreement at the Paris Club meeting in December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existing debt stock. The Bolivian government continues to pay its debts to the multilateral development banks on time. Bolivia is a beneficiary of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC debt relief programs which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to new soft loans. The income from tourism becomes more important. Bolivia's tourist industry has grown gradually since about 1990. Demographics Main article: Demographics of Bolivia People in La Paz city centre Festival in Sucre Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 30% Quechua-speaking and 25% Aymara-speaking. The largest of the approximately three dozen native groups are the Quechuas (2.5 million) Aymaras (2 million) then Chiquitano (180000) and Guaran (125000). So the full Amerindian population is at 55%; the remaining 30% is mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European) and around 15% are whites.53 The white population consists mostly of criollos which in turn consist of families of relatively unmixed Spanish ancestry descended from the early Spanish colonists. These have formed much of the aristocracy since independence. Other smaller groups within the white population are Germans who founded the former national airline Lloyd Areo Boliviano as well as Italians Basques Croats Russians Poles and other minorities many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations. Some 40000 German-speaking Mennonites live in eastern Bolivia.54 Young miners at work in Potos The Afro Bolivian community numbers more than 0.5% of the population descended from African slaves that were transported to work in Brazil and then migrated westward into Bolivia. They are mostly concentrated in the Yungas region (Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas provinces) in the department of La Paz. There are also Japanese who are concentrated mostly in Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Middle Easterners who became prosperous in commerce. Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people many of whom are subsistence farmers live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometre in the southeastern plains to about ten per square kilometre (25 per sq. mi) in the central highlands. As of 2006 the population is increasing about 1.45% per year.55 Major cities are La Paz (administrative capital) Sucre (capital) Santa Cruz de la Sierra (largest population) El Alto Oruro and Cochabamba. Cities by Population Rank City Departments Population Rank City Departments Population Santa Cruz de la Sierra La Paz Cochabamba 1 Santa Cruz  Santa Cruz 1451597 11 Quillacollo  Cochabamba 92747 2 El Alto  La Paz 858932 12 Montero  Santa Cruz 91952 3 La Paz  La Paz 835186 13 Trinidad  Beni 87977 4 Cochabamba  Cochabamba 595226 14 Riberalta  Beni 93624 5 Sucre  Chuquisaca 280225 15 Tiquipaya  Cochabamba 62940 6 Oruro  Oruro 216702 16 La Guardia  Santa Cruz 49921 7 Tarija  Tarija 176787 17 Warnes  Santa Cruz 47406 8 Potos  Potos 150647 18 Cotoca  Santa Cruz 45277 9 Sacaba  Cochabamba 134518 19 Guayaramern  Beni 35767 10 Yacuba  Tarija 95594 20 Cobija  Pando 34498 Source: Projected population for 2007 INE. Health In 2006 life expectancy at birth was 64 for males and 67 for females.10 A study by UN Development Programme and UNICEF reported that over 230 babies in Bolivia died per day through lack of proper care.56 The majority of the population has no health insurance.57 A significant part of the population has no access to healthcare.57 Demographic and Health Surveys has completed five surveys in Bolivia since 1989 on a wide range of topics.58 Religion Main article: Religion in Bolivia Aymara woman praying Cristo de la Concordia in Cochabamba a symbol of Catholic influence in Bolivia Although the great majority of Bolivians are Roman Catholic Protestant denominations and traditional ethnic Inca religion5960 are expanding rapidly.55 According to a 2001 survey conducted by the National Statistical Institute 78% of the population is Roman Catholic 16% is Protestant and 3% follow other Christian denominations.61 Islam is practiced by the descendants of Arabs and local converts constituting a small minority of just over 2000 adherents. There is also a small Jewish community that is almost all Ashkenazim in origin. The state has no official religion. There are colonies of Mennonites in the Santa Cruz Department.62 Many Native communities interweave pre-Columbia and Christian symbols in their worship. Language Main article: Languages of Bolivia Spanish 60.7% (official) Quechua 21.2% (official) Aymara 14.6% (official) foreign languages 2.4% other 1.2% (2001 census according to CIA Factbook). According to Instituto Nacional de Estadstica de Bolivia 28.1% of the population of Bolivia spoke an indigenous language as a first language in 2007. This had increased to 29.4% in 2008. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary-school but often for a year or less. Until the 2001 census the literacy rate was low in many rural areas but according to the CIA the literacy rate was 87% nationwide which is similar to Brazil's but below the South American average. Nevertheless in 2008 after the campaign "Yes I can" Bolivia was declared illiteracy-free under the UNESCO standards.63 "a first language" is questionable as it fails to make a distinction of whether this means only language spoken or one of multiple learned nearly simultaneously or one first and then others later (in which case it would be more insightful to put the percentages for "first language" as well as "total speaker" percentages). Also indigenous languages have historically been underrepresented and the 2001 census statistics are too old (especially given Bolivia's recent history) and requires a newer inquiry. Politics and government Main articles: Politics of Bolivia and Foreign relations of Bolivia The government building of the National Congress of Bolivia at the Plaza Murillo in central La Paz. Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982 when a long string of military coups came to an end. Presidents Hernn Siles Zuazo (198285) and Vctor Paz Estenssoro (198589) began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has continued although two presidents have stepped down in the face of popular protests: Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada in 2003 and Carlos Mesa in 2005. The current president is Evo Morales the first indigenous Bolivian to serve as head of state. The constitution drafted in 2006-07 and approved in 2009 provides for balanced executive legislative judicial and electoral powers as well as several levels of autonomy. The traditionally strong executive branch tends to overshadow the Congress whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary consisting of the Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994 and subsequent laws the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes. Bolivia's nine departments received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995. Departmental autonomy further increased with the first popular elections for departmental governors (prefectos) on 18 December 2005 after long protests by the pro-autonomy department of Santa Cruz. Bolivian cities and towns are governed by directly elected mayors and councils. Municipal elections were held on 5 December 2004 with councils elected to five-year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994 which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services. The departments of Tarija Beni Pando and Santa Cruz are sometimes known as the "half moon" because of the crescent shape of the departments when looked at together in the east of the country. They also have in common conservative politics and rich fossil fuel deposits. Legislative branch Bolivia's government is a republic. The Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational Legislative Assembly or National Congress) has two chambers. The Cmara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) has 130 members elected to five year terms seventy from single-member districts (circunscripciones) and sixty by proportional representation. The Cmara de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has 36 members (four per department) elected to five year terms. Executive branch     Cabinet of Bolivia Second Presidency of Evo Morales 2010 Office Name Term Presidency Evo Morales 2006present Vice Presidency lvaro Garca Linera 2006present Ministry of the Presidency Oscar Coca Antezana 2010present Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Chancellor) David Choquehuanca 2006present Ministry of Government Sacha Sergio Llorenti Soliz 2010present Ministry of National Defense Mara Cecilia Chacn Rendn64 6 Apr 2011present Rubn Saavedra Soto 20106 Apr 2011 Solicitor General's Office Hugo Ral Montero Lara65 8 Feb 2011present replaced Ministry of Legal Defense of the State Arismendi Chumacero65 20108 Feb 2011 Ministry of Cultures Elizabeth Salguero 16 Feb 2011present Zulma Yugar Prraga 201016 Feb 201166 Ministry of Development Planning Elba Viviana Caro Hinojosa 2010present Ministry of Autonomy Carlos Romero Bonifaz Feb 2009present Ministry of Education Roberto Aguilar 2008present Ministry of Rural Development and Land Nemecia Achacollo Tola 2010present Ministry of Economy and Finance Luis Alberto Arce Catacora Ministry of Public Works Services and Housing Walter Juvenal Delgadillo Terceros Ministry of Mining and Metallurgy Jos Antonio Pimentel Castillo 29 Jan 2010present Milton Gmez Mamani 2329 Jan 2010 Ministry of Justice Nilda Copa Condori 2010present Ministry of Health and Sports Nila Heredia Miranda May 2010present Sonia Polo Jan 2010May 2010 Ministry of Work Employment and Social Security Daniel Santalla 2 Jun 2011present Flix Rojas Gutirrez Feb2 Jun 2011 Carmen Trujillo Crdenas66 201016 Feb 2011 Ministry of Institutional Transparency and the Fight against Corruption Nardi Suxo 2010present Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy Jos Luis Gutirrez Prez 2011present Luis Fernando Vincenti February 20102011 Ministry of the Environment and Water Julieta Monje Villa 2011present Mara Esther Udaeta 20102011 Ministry of Productive Development and the Plural Economy Ana Teresa Morales 2011present Antonia Rodriguez 20102011 Ministry of Communication created 16 February 2011 Ivn Canelas66 Feb 2011present Unless otherwise specified Ministerial transitions occurred during annual appointments in January: on 23 January in both 2010 and 2011. The executive branch is headed by a President and Vice President and consists of a variable number (currently 20) of government ministries. The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote. In the case that no candidate receives an absolute majority of the popular vote or more than 40% of the vote with an advantage of more than 10% over the second place finisher a run-off is to be held among the two candidates most voted.67 Prisons There are 53 prisons in Bolivia which incarcerate around 8700 people as of 2010. The prisons are managed by the Penitentiary Regime Directorate (Spanish: Direccin de Rgimen Penintenciario). There are 17 prisons in departmental capital cities and 36 provincial prisons. Electoral branch The electoral branch of Bolivia's government formally the Plurinational Electoral Organ is an independent branch of government which replaced the National Electoral Court in 2010. The branch consists of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal the nine Departmental Electoral Tribunals Electoral Judges the anonymously selected Juries at Election Tables and Electoral Notaries.68 Wilfredo Ovando presides over the seven-member Supreme Electoral Tribunal. Its operations are mandated by the Constitution and regulated by the Electoral Regime Law (Law 026 passed 2010). The Organ's first elections will be the country's first judicial election in October 2011 and five municipal special elections expected to be held in 2011. Administrative divisions Main articles: Departments of Bolivia Provinces of Bolivia Municipalities of Bolivia and Cantons of Bolivia Map of the departments of Bolivia. Bolivia is divided into nine departments (departamentos); capitals in parentheses: Beni (Trinidad) Chuquisaca (Sucre) Cochabamba (Cochabamba) La Paz (La Paz) Oruro (Oruro) Pando (Cobija) Potos (Potos) Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz de la Sierra) Tarija (Tarija) Additionally the departments are further divided into 100 provinces (provincias) and the provinces are each divided into municipalities (municipios) and cantons (cantones) which handle local affairs. Military An SK-105 the main battle tank of the Bolivian army. The Bolivian military comprises three branches: an Army Navy (an empty navy) and Air Force. The legal age for voluntary admissions is 18; however when the numbers are small the government recruits anyone as young as 14.69 The tour of duty is generally 12 months. The Bolivian government annually spends $130 million on defense.70 The Bolivian Army has around 31500 men. There are six military regions (regiones militaresRMs) in the army. The Army is organized into ten divisions. Though it is landlocked Bolivia keeps a navy. The Bolivian Naval Force (Fuerza Naval Boliviana in Spanish) is a naval force about 5000 strong in 2008.71 The Bolivian Air Force ('Fuerza Area Boliviana' or 'FAB') has nine air bases located at La Paz Cochabamba Santa Cruz Puerto Surez Tarija Villamontes Cobija Riberalta and Robor. Civil aviation See also: List of airlines of Bolivia and List of airports in Bolivia The General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics (Direccin General de Aeronutica CivilDGAC) formerly part of the FAB administers a civil aeronautics school called the National Institute of Civil Aeronautics (Instituto Nacional de Aeronutica CivilINAC) and two commercial air transport services TAM and TAB. TAM (Transporte Areo Militar) 'TAM Transporte Areo Militar (the Bolivian Military Airline) is an airline based in La Paz Bolivia. It is the civilian wing of the 'Fuerza Area Boliviana' (the Bolivian Air Force) operating passenger services to remote towns and communities in the North and Northeast of Bolivia. TAM (a.k.a. TAM Group 71) has been a part of the FAB since 1945. A similar airline serving the Beni Department with small planes is Lnea Area Amaszonas72 using smaller planes than TAM. TAB (Transportes Areos Bolivianos) Although a civil transport airline TAB Transportes Areos Bolivianos was created as a subsidiary company of the FAB in 1977. It is subordinate to the Air Transport Management (Gerencia de Transportes Areos) and is headed by an FAB general. TAB a charter heavy cargo airline links Bolivia with most countries of the Western Hemisphere; its inventory included a fleet of Hercules C130 aircraft. TAB was headquartered adjacent to El Alto International Airport. TAB also flew to Miami and Houston with stops in Panama. Culture Main article: Culture of Bolivia See also: Music of Bolivia and Public holidays in Bolivia Bolivian children playing tarka Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Quechua the Aymara as well as by the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole. The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian colonial and republican. Important archaeological ruins gold and silver ornaments stone monuments ceramics and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku El Fuerte de Samaipata Incallajta and Iskanawaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.55 The Diablada dance primeval typical and main of Carnival of Oruro a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2001 in Bolivia (Image: Fraternidad Artstica y Cultural "La Diablada". The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which in the hands of local native and mestizo builders and artisans developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture painting and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Prez de Holgun Flores Bitti and others but also the works of skilled but unknown stonecutters woodcarvers goldsmiths and silversmiths. An important body of Native Baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.55 Bolivian artists of stature in the twentieth century include Guzmn de Rojas Arturo Borda Mara Luisa Pacheco Roberto Mamani Mamani Alejandro Mario Yllanes Alfredo Da Silva and Marina Nez del Prado William Vega. Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco.55 The best known of the various festivals found in the country is the "Carnaval de Oruro" which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" as proclaimed by the UNESCO in May 2001. Entertainment includes football which is the national sport as well as table football which is played on street corners by both children and adults. Education Main article: Education in Bolivia Literacy class in the El Alto section of La Paz Under UNESCO standards Bolivia has been declared free of illiteracy in 2008.63 Bolivia has a wide variety of public and private universities. Among them: Universidad San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca USFX Sucre founded in 1624; Universidad Mayor de San Andres UMSA La Paz founded in 1830; Universidad Mayor de San Simon UMSS Cochabamba founded in 1832; Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno UAGRM Santa Cruz de la Sierra founded in 1880; Universidad Tecnica de Oruro UTO Oruro founded in 1892; Universidad Autnoma Toms Fras UATF Potosi founded in 1892; Universidad Juan Misael Saracho UJMS Tarija founded in 1946; Universidad Catolica Boliviana San Pablo UCB founded in 1966; Universidad Tcnica del Beni UTB Trinidad founded in 1967; Universidad Nur NUR founded in 1982; Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de la Sierra UPSA Santa Cruz de la Sierra founded in 1984; Universidad Nacional Siglo XX UNSXX Llallagua founded in 1986; Universidad del Valle UNIVALLE -Cochabamba founded in 1988; Universidad Privada Boliviana UPB founded in 1993; Universidad Privada Franz Tamayo UPFT founded in 1993 and Universidad Amaznica de Pando UAP Cobija founded in 1993. For the first time in bolivian history three indigenous universities were created: Universidad Aymara Tupac Katari UATK La Paz founded in 2009; Universidad Quechua Casmiro Huanca UQCH Cochabamba founded in 2009 and Universidad Boliviana Guaran y Pueblos de Tierras Bajas UGPTB Chuquisaca founded in 2009. See also Main article: Outline of Bolivia Index of Bolivia-related articles List of Bolivia-related topics List of countries with multiple capitals South America Life Quality Rankings Further reading Alexander R. J. (2005) A History of Organized Labor in Bolivia Praeger Publishers Inc Atkinson D. (2007) Bradt Travel Guide: Bolivia Bradt Travel Guides Crabtree J. and Whitehead L. (eds.; 2008) Unresolved Tensions: Bolivia Past and Present University of Pittsburgh Press Dangl B. (2007) The Price of Fire: Resource Wars and Social Movements in Bolivia AK Press Farcau B. W. (2000) The Ten Cents War: Chile Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific 1879-1884 Greenwood Press Farthing L. and Kohl B. (2006) Impasse in Bolivia: Neoliberal Hegemony and Popular Resistance Zed Books Gill L. (2000) Teetering on the Rim: Global Restructuring Daily Life and the Armed Retreat of the Bolivian State Columbia University Press Goldstein D. M. (2004) The Spectacular City: Violence and Performance in Urban Bolivia Duke University Press Gustafson B. D. (2009) New Languages of the State: Indigenous Resurgence and the Politics of Knowledge in Bolivia Duke University Press Harten S. (2011) The Rise of Evo Morales and the MAS Zed Books Healy K. (2000) Llamas Weavings and Organic Chocolate: Multicultural Grassroots Development in the Andes and Amazon of Bolivia University of Notre Dame Press Hylton F. and Thomson S. (2008) Revolutionary Horizons: Past and Present in Bolivian Politics Verso Jacobs M. (2006) Ghost Train Through the Andes: On My Grandfather's Trail in Chile and Bolivia John Murray Jemio L. C. (2001) Debt Crisis Reform Bolivia: Biting the Bullet Palgrave Macmillan Klein H. S. (1992) Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society Oxford University Press Klein H. S. (2011) A Concise History of Bolivia Stanford University Press Kunststaetter D. and R. (2008) Footprint Handbook: Bolivia Footprint Handbooks Lazar S. (2008) El Alto Rebel City: Self and Citizenship in Andean Bolivia Duke University Press Lougheed V. (2008) Understanding Bolivia: A Traveller's History Harbour Publishing McLaughlin D. (2008) Bolivia Fields Publishing Morales W. Q. (1992) Bolivia: Land of Struggle Westview Press Mutic A.(2010) Lonely Planet Guide: Bolivia Lonely Planet Olivera O. and Lewis T. (2004) Cochabamba!: Water Rebellion in Bolivia South End Press Petras J. (2005) Social Movements and State Power: Argentina Brazil Bolivia Ecuador Pluto Press Postero N. G. (2006) Now We Are Citizens: Indigenous Politics in Post-multicultural Bolivia Stanford University Press Powers W. (2006) Whispering in the Giant's Ear: A Frontline Chronicle from Bolivia's War on Globalization Bloomsbury Publishing Read J. (2008) The Rough Guide to Bolivia Rough Guides Richards K. (2009) Culture Smart!: Bolivia Kuperard Sivak M. (2010) Evo Morales: The Extraordinary Rise of the First Indigenous President of Bolivia Palgrave Macmillan Spitzer L. (1999) Hotel Bolivia: The Culture of Memory in a Refuge from Nazism Hill & Wang Stearman A. M. (1989) Camba and Kolla: Migration and Development in Santa Cruz Bolivia University Press of Florida Suzuki T. (2010) Embodying Belonging: Racializing Okinawan Diaspora in Bolivia and Japan niversity of Hawai'i Press Webber J. R. (2011) Rebellion and Reform in Bolivia Haymarket Books Webber J. R. (2011) Red October: Left-Indigenous Struggles in Modern Bolivia Brill Academic Werner R. J. (2009) Bolivia in Focus: A Guide to the People Politics and Culture Interlink Publishing Young R. (2004) Marching Powder Pan References Article 6 section II of the new Bolivian constitution establishes the Wiphala as a national symbol of Bolivia (along with the flag national anthem and coat of arms). See "Bandera indgena boliviana es incluida como smbolo patrio en nueva Constitucin" October 21 2008 United Press International. "Artculo 6. I. Sucre es la Capital de Bolivia." (Article 6. I. Sucre is the capital of Bolivia.) Constitution of Bolivia Bolivian Constitution Article 5-I: Son idiomas oficiales del Estado el castellano y todos los idiomas de las naciones y pueblos indgena originario campesinos que son el aymara araona baure bsiro canichana cavineo cayubaba chcobo chimn ese ejja Guaran guarasu'we guarayu itonama leco machajuyai-kallawaya machineri maropa mojeo-trinitario mojeo-ignaciano mor mosetn movima pacawara puquina quechua sirion tacana tapiet toromona uru-chipaya weenhayek yawanawa yuki yuracar y zamuco. "Kids Encyclopedia". Kids.britannica.com. 8 February 2009. http://kids.britannica.com/comptons/atlasgeogId31. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  "The World Factbook Bolivia". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bl.html. Retrieved 30 March 2010.  "Bolivia". World Gazetteer. http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.phpx1262904839&mengpro&lngen&deswg&geo-1048596&srtnpan&colabcdefghinoq&msz1500&geo-38. Retrieved 7 January 2010.  a b c d "Bolivia". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspxsy2008&ey2011&scsm1&ssd1&sortcountry&ds.&br1&c218&sNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp0&a&pr.x42&pr.y7. Retrieved 21 April 2011.  "Distribution of family income Gini index". The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html. Retrieved 1 September 2009.  "Human Development Report 2010". United Nations. 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR2010ENTable1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2010.  a b "WHO Bolivia (Plurinational State of)". Who.int. 11 May 2010. http://www.who.int/countries/bol/en/. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  "UNdata country profile Bolivia (Plurinational State of)". United Nations. 14 November 1945. http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspxcrNameBolivia%20(Plurinational%20State%20of). Retrieved 30 August 2010.  Simn Bolvar Salem Press 6 de Agosto: Independencia de Bolivia 1 What countries are named after individuals or families Morales highly favoured for re-election in Bolivia Truth Out/Associated Press 6 December 2009 Can Bolivias indigenous groups dance in harmony BBC 10 June 2010 Bolivia poll wont end opposition BBC 24 January 2009 Fagan Brian M. 'The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of Past Civilizations'. New York: Thames & Hudson 2001. Kolata Alan L. 'The Tiwankau: Portrait of an Andean Civilization'. Blackwell Publishers Cambridge 1993. p. 145 Kolata Alan L. Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara. John Wiley and Sons Hoboken 1996. a b McAndrews Timothy L. et al. 'Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia'. Journal of Field Archaeology 24 (1997): 6783. Isbell William H. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon'. 731751. a b Kolata Alan L. 'The Tiwankau: Portrait of an Andean Civilization'. Blackwell Publishers Cambridge 1993. The High Place: Potosi. John Demos. MSN Encarta Conquest in the Americas. Archived 31 October 2009. "Bolivia Ethnic Groups". Countrystudies.us. http://countrystudies.us/bolivia/29.htm. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  Rebellions. History Department Duke University. 2 Background note: Bolivia-Source-Bolivien-liest.de Harold Osborne (1954). Bolivia: A Land Divided. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs.  History World (2004). "History of Bolivia". National Grid for Learning. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asphistoryidac11.  Juan Forero (7 May 2006). "History Helps Explain Bolivia's New Boldness". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/weekinreview/07forero.html. Retrieved 26 April 2010.  (PDF) University of WisconsinMadison Department of Geography Grant Will (8 October 2007). "CIA man recounts Che Guevara's death". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7027619.stm. Retrieved 2 January 2010  "Statements by Ernesto "Che" Guevara Prior to His Execution in Bolivia". Foreign Relations of the United States Volume XXXI South and Central America; Mexico. United States Department of State. Washington 13 October 1967. XXXI: 172. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/johnsonlb/xxxi/36271.htm  Brian Boyd (20 January 2006). "Astroturfing all the way to No 1". The Irish Times. http://www.irishtimes.com/theticket/articles/2006/0120/1137626790492.html. Retrieved 7 April 2010.  "Bolivia" South America History of Nations http://www.historyofnations.net/southamerica/bolivia.html . 3 Ethnicity and Politics in Bolivia-Source-Ethnopolitics Vol. 4 No. 3 269297 September 2005 Lucero Jos Antonio (Forthcoming). Phil Oxhorn Kenneth Roberts and John Burdick. ed. Decades Lost and Won: The Articulations of Indigenous Movements and Multicultural Neoliberalism in theAndes. Beyond Neoliberalism. Palgrave.  "1994 CIA World FactBook". http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact94/wf950032.txt. Retrieved 4 March 2010.  "Historia de la Repblica de Bolivia". http://www.mirabolivia.com/edu/historia.htm. Retrieved 4 March 2010.  Kohl Benjamin. "Restructuring Citizenship in Bolivia: El Plan de Todos.". http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118840742/abstract. Retrieved 4 March 2010.  Strbele Juliana. 1997 Oct. http://www.latautonomy.org/LeyPP2a.PDF "Ley de Participacin Popular y Movimiento Popular en Argentina" (in Spanish). 1997 Oct. http://www.latautonomy.org/LeyPP2a.PDF. Retrieved 4 March 2010.  " Push for new Bolivia constitution". BBC News. 6 August 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5251306.stm. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  CIA World Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html. "Peru deal gives landlocked Bolivia coast for own port". BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11595368. Retrieved 13 June 2011.  "Country rankings for trade business fiscal monetary financial labor and investment freedoms". Heritage.org. http://www.heritage.org/index/Ranking.aspx. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  Mark Weisbrot Rebecca Ray and Jake Johnston (December 2009). "Bolivia: The Economy During the Morales Administration". CEPR - Center for Economic and Policy Research. http://www.cepr.net/index.php/publications/reports/bolivian-economy-during-morales-administration/.  Crabtree J.; Buffy G.; Pearce J. (1988). "The Great Tin Crash: Bolivia and the World Tin Market". Bulletin of Latin American Research (Bulletin of Latin American Research Vol. 7 No. 1) 7 (1): 174175. doi:10.2307/3338459. JSTOR 3338459.  4 Economy of Bolivia-Source-US State Government "Anti-Morales protests hit Bolivia". BBC News. 10 September 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7607158.stm. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  "Bolivia's lithium mining dilemma". BBC News. 10 September 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7607624.stm. Retrieved 26 April 2010.  Jennifer Hattam ""Who Owns Water" Sierra September 2001 v.86 iss.5 p.16. PBS Frontline/World "Leasing the Rain" Video June 2002 Bolivian people Bolivian Reforms Raise Anxiety on Mennonite Frontier. The New York Times. 21 December 2006. a b c d e "Background Note: Bolivia". United States Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35751.htm. Retrieved 17 October 2006.  United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (23 May 2007). "Refworld Amnesty International Report 2007 - Bolivia". UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisherAMNESTYBOL46558ec0110.html. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  a b "Microsoft Word - boliviaen.doc" (PDF). http://www.who.int/countryfocus/cooperationstrategy/ccsbriefbolen.pdf. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  Bolivia Surveys Sanahuja Juan. "The Religious Tribalism of Evo Morales in Bolivia". Tradition in action. http://www.traditioninaction.org/HotTopics/i99ht002TribalismBolivia.html. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  "Evo Morales consecrated Spiritual Leader of Native Religion". E foro Bolivia. 21 January 2010. http://www.eforobolivia.org/blog.php/p1473. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  "Bolivia religion". Department of State. 14 September 2007. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90243.htm. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  Sally Bowen (January 1999). "Brazil Wants What Bolivia Has". Latin Trade. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mim0BEK/is17/ai54759942. Retrieved 17 October 2006.  a b "Bolivia declares literacy success". BBC News (London). 21 December 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7794293.stm.  "Una mujer es Ministra de Defensa". La Razn. 2011-04-07. http://www.la-razon.com/version.phpArticleId128222&EditionId2491. Retrieved 2011-04-07.  a b "Posesionan al primer Procurador General". Los Tiempos. 2011-02-08. http://www.lostiempos.com/diario/actualidad/nacional/20110208/posesionan-al-primer-procurador-general112151221201.html. Retrieved 2011-02-16.  a b c "Morales cambia a dos Ministras y repone Ministerio de Comunicacin". La Jornada (La Paz). 2011-02-16. http://www.jornadanet.com/n.phpa59659-1. Retrieved 2011-02-16.  Constitucin Poltica del Estado art. 166. "Posesionan a cuatro Vocales del Tribunal Supremo Electoral". La Jornada. 2010-08-16. http://www.jornadanet.com/n.phpa51574-1. Retrieved 2011-04-28.  CIA -The World Factbook Bolivia "Bolivia Military Profile 2006". 2006. http://indexmundi.com/bolivia/militaryprofile.html.  Carroll Rory (28 August 2008). "Bolivia's landlocked sailors pine for the high seas". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/aug/28/bolivia. Retrieved 26 April 2010.  "Amaszonas". Amaszonas. http://www.amaszonas.com. Retrieved 30 August 2010.  External links Find more about Bolivia on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks UNHCR: Bolivia references World Health Organization: Bolivia Bolivia entry at The World Factbook U.S. Library of Congress Bolivia: A Country Study Encyclopedia of the Nations: Bolivia BBC News: Country Profile Bolivia Lonely Planet: Introducing Bolivia Bolivia Weekly Bolivia News U.S. State Department: Bolivia World Trade Organization: Bolivia World Atlas: Map of Bolivia The Carter Center: Bolivia Embassy World: Maps of Bolivia The New York Times: Bolivia News The Washington Post: Bolivia Country Guide Association of Religion Data Archives profile: Bolivia Languages of Bolivia Bolivian Information Forum LANIC Bolivia page Bolivia: Legacy of the Chaco War Bolivia: Photos and Postcards Bolivia Economy Complete information on Bolivia Related information v d e Bolivia topics History Qullasuyu  Spanish colonization  Bolivian War of Independence  PeruBolivian Confederation  Modern Bolivia  Cochabamba protests  Bolivia Gas War Geography Departments  Provinces  Cities  Lakes  Mountains  Volcanoes  Rivers  Climate  Environmental issues  Extreme points Politics President  Government  Political parties  Elections  Constitution  Foreign relations  Military  Law enforcement  Human rights (LGBT rights) Economy Tourism  Boliviano  Communications  Transport  Energy  Sanitation  Health  International rankings Demographics People  Ethnic groups  Religion  Education  Languages  Health Culture Architecture  Cuisine  Flag  Literature  Media  Music  Public Holidays  Sport  Olympics v d eCountries and dependencies of South America Sovereign states Argentina  Bolivia  Brazil  Chile  Colombia  Ecuador  France (French Guiana)  Guyana  Netherlands (Bonaire)  Panama  Paraguay  Peru  Suriname  Uruguay  Venezuela Dependencies Netherlands Aruba  Curaao United Kingdom Falkland Islands  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands  International membership v d eUnion of South American Nations Member states Argentina  Bolivia  Brazil  Chile  Colombia  Ecuador  Guyana  Paraguay  Peru  Suriname  Uruguay  Venezuela Summits South American Energy Summit  2004 South American Summit  2010 South American Summit Topics Cusco Declaration  Constitutive Treaty  President Pro Tempore  Secretary General  Bank of the South  South American Parliament  Initiative for Infrastructure Integration of South America  Mercosur  Andean Community v d eMercosur  Mercosul  (Southern Common Market) Full Members Argentina  Brazil  Paraguay  Uruguay Becoming Full Members Venezuela Associate members Bolivia  Chile  Colombia  Ecuador  Peru Observers Mexico v d eOrganization of American States (OAS) Antigua and Barbuda  Argentina  Barbados  Brazil  Belize  Bahamas  Bolivia  Chile  Costa Rica  Cuba  Canada  Dominica  Dominican Republic  Ecuador  El Salvador  Grenada  Guatemala  Guyana  Haiti  Honduras  Jamaica  Mexico  Nicaragua  Panama  Paraguay  Peru  St. Lucia  St. Vincent and the Grenadines  St. Kitts and Nevis  Suriname  Trinidad and Tobago  United States  Uruguay  Venezuela v d eLatin Union Member nations Andorra  Angola  Bolivia  Brazil  Cape Verde  Chile  Colombia  Costa Rica  Cte d'Ivoire  Cuba  Dominican Republic  East Timor  Ecuador  El Salvador  France  Guatemala  Guinea-Bissau  Haiti  Honduras  Italy  Mexico  Moldova  Monaco  Mozambique  Nicaragua  Panama  Paraguay  Peru  Philippines  Portugal  Romania  San Marino  So Tom and Prncipe  Senegal  Spain  Uruguay  Venezuela Permanent observers Argentina  Holy See  Sovereign Military Order of Malta Official languages Catalan  French  Italian  Portuguese  Romanian  Spanish