This article is about the country. For other uses see Ethiopia (disambiguation). This article may have too long an introduction for its overall length. Please help by moving some material from it into the body of the article. For more information please read the layout guide and Wikipedia's lead section guidelines. (February 2011) This article contains Ethiopic text. Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Ethiopic characters. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia ye-tyy Fdralw Dmkrsyw Rpeblk Flag Coat of arms Anthem: Wodefit Gesgeshi Widd Innat Ityopp'ya "March Forward Dear Mother Ethiopia". Capital (and largest city) Addis Ababa 91.8N 3844.4E / 9.03N 38.74E / 9.03; 38.74 Official language(s) Amharic Recognised regional languages Other languages official amongst the different ethnicities and their respective regions. Ethnic groups  Oromo 34.49% Amhara 26.89% Somali 6.20% Tigray 6.07%; Sidama 4.01% Gurage 2.53% Welayta 2.31%12 and around eighty other small ethnic groups. Demonym Ethiopian Government Federal parliamentary republic1  -  President Girma Wolde-Giorgis  -  Prime Minister Meles Zenawi Establishment  -  Traditional date 980 BC   -  Current constitution 1991  Area  -  Total 1104300 km2 (27th) 426371 sq mi   -  Water (%) 0.7 Population  -  2011 estimate 880134913 (13th)  -  2007 census 73918505   -  Density 79/km2 (123rd) 194/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate  -  Total $86.123 billion4   -  Per capita $10154  GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate  -  Total $29.717 billion4   -  Per capita $3504  Gini (199900) 30 (medium)  HDI (2010) 0.328 (low) (157th) Currency Birr (ETB) Time zone EAT (UTC+3)  -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+3) Drives on the right ISO 3166 code ET Internet TLD .et Calling code 251 1 According to The Economist in its Democracy Index Ethiopia is a "hybrid regime" with a dominant-party system led by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front. 2 Rank based on 2005 population estimate by the United Nations.

Ethiopia ( /iiopi/) (Ge'ez: tyy) is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa and officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa with over 85.2 million people5 and the tenth-largest by area with its 1100000 km2. The capital is Addis Ababa. Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea to the north Sudan to the west Djibouti and Somalia to the east and Kenya to the south. It is also the most populous landlocked country in the world.

Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history and the Ethiopian dynasty traces its roots to the 2nd century BC.6 Ethiopia is also one of the oldest sites of human existence known to scientists today having yielded some of humanity's oldest traces.7 It may be the region from which Homo sapiens first set out for the Middle East and points beyond.8910 When Africa was divided up by European powers at the Berlin Conference Ethiopia was one of only two countries that retained its independence. It was one of only four African members of the League of Nations. After a brief period of Italian occupation Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations. When other African nations received their independence following World War II many of them adopted the colors of Ethiopia's flag and Addis Ababa became the location of several international organizations focused on Africa.

Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the south toward its present borders owing to several migrations and commercial integration as well as conquests particularly by Emperor Menelik II and Ras Gobena. In 1974 the dynasty led by Haile Selassie was overthrown as civil wars intensified. Since then Ethiopia has seen a variety of governmental systems. Ethiopia is one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) G-77 and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Today Addis Ababa is still the headquarter of the African Union the Nile Basin Commission11 the Pan African Chamber of Commerce (PACCI) and12 UNECA. The country has one of the most powerful militaries in Africa and Addis Ababa is the headquarter of the continental African Standby Force (ASF). Ethiopia is one of a few African countries to have its own alphabet.13 Ethiopia also has its own time system and unique calendar seven to eight years behind the Gregorian Calendar. It has the largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa.14

The country is a land of natural contrasts with waterfalls and volcanic hot springs. Ethiopia has some of Africa's highest mountains as well as some of the world's lowest points below sea level. The largest cave in Africa is located in Ethiopia at Sof Omar and the country's northernmost area at Dallol is one of the hottest places year-round anywhere on Earth. There are altogether around 80 different ethnic groups in Ethiopia today with the two largest being the Oromo and the Amhara both of which speak Afro-Asiatic languages. The country is also famous for its Olympic gold medalists rock-hewn churches and as the place where the coffee bean originated. Currently Ethiopia is the top coffee and honey-producing country in Africa and home to the largest livestock population in Africa. Ethiopia has close historical ties to all three of the world's major Abrahamic religions. It was one of the first Christian countries in the world having officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century. It has a Christian majority and a third of the population is Muslim. Ethiopia is the site of the first hijra in Islamic history and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. Until the 1980s a substantial population of Ethiopian Jews resided in Ethiopia. The country is also the spiritual homeland of the Rastafari religious movement.

Ethiopia which has Africa's second biggest hydropower potential15 is the source of over 85% of the total Nile water flow and contains rich soils but it nevertheless underwent a series of famines in the 1980s exacerbated by adverse geopolitics and civil wars resulting in the death of hundreds of thousands.16 Slowly however the country has begun to recover and today Ethiopia has the biggest economy in East Africa (GDP)17 as the Ethiopian economy is also one of the fastest growing in the world. It is a regional powerhouse in the Horn and east Africa.18192021 The country remains politically fragile. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Antiquity 2.3 Middle Ages 2.4 Zemene Mesafint 2.5 From Menelik to Adwa 2.6 Haile Selassie era 2.7 Mengistu Era 2.8 Recent history 3 Politics 3.1 Governance 4 Regions zones and districts 5 Geography 5.1 Climate 6 Environment 6.1 Wildlife 6.2 Deforestation 7 Economy 7.1 Exports 7.2 Transportation 8 Demographics 8.1 Languages 8.2 Religion 8.3 Calendar 8.4 Urbanization 8.4.1 Rural and urban life 9 Health 10 Education 11 Culture 11.1 Cuisine 11.2 Music 11.3 Sport 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Name

The Greek name appears twice in the Iliad and three times in the Odyssey.22 The Greek historian Herodotus specifically uses it for all the lands south of Egypt23 including Sudan and modern Ethiopia. Aithiopia is from Aithiops an Ethiopian derived in turn from Greek words meaning "of burned face".2425

The name Ethiopia also occurs in many translations of the Old Testament but the Hebrew texts have Kush which refers foremost to Nubia / Sudan.26 In the (Greek) New Testament however the Greek term Aithiops an Ethiopian does occur27 referring to a servant of Candace or Kentakes possibly an inhabitant of Meroe which was later conquered by the Kingdom of Axum. The earliest attested use of the name Ityopya in the region itself is as a name for the Kingdom of Aksum in the 4th century in stone inscriptions of King Ezana28 who first Christianized the entire apparatus of the kingdom.

Pliny the Elder says the country's name comes from a personal name Aethiops.29 The Greek name was adopted into Ge'ez appearing in the 15th century Book of Aksum as tyy. Aethiops appears as "'Ityopp'is" identified as a son (unmentioned in the Bible) of Cush son of Ham who according to legend founded the city of Axum.

In English and generally outside Ethiopia the country was also once historically known as Abyssinia derived from Habesh an early Arabic form of the Ethiosemitic name "abat" (unvocalized "BT"). The modern form Habesha is the native name for the country's inhabitants (while the country has been called "Ityopp'ya"). In a few languages Ethiopia is still referred to by names cognate with "Abyssinia" e.g. modern Arabic Al-abashah meaning land of the Habasha people.citation needed The term Habesha strictly speaking refers only to the Semitic-speaking groups particularly the Amhara and Tigray-Tigrinya people who have historically dominated the country politically as well as the Gurage and other smaller communities like the Harari of eastern Ethiopia. However in contemporary Ethiopia the word Habesha is sometimes used to describe all Ethiopians and Eritreans.citation needed Abyssinia can strictly refer to just the northwestern Ethiopian provinces of Amhara and Tigray as well as central Eritrea while it was historically used as another name for Ethiopia.30 History Main article: History of Ethiopia Prehistory East Africa and more specifically the general area of Ethiopia is widely considered the site of the emergence of early Homo sapiens in the Middle Paleolithic 400000 years ago. Homo sapiens idaltu found at site Middle Awash in Ethiopia lived about 160000 years ago.31 Antiquity Coins of the Axumite king Endybis 227235 AD. British Museum. The left one reads in Greek "AWMITW BACIEYC" "King of Axum". The right one reads in Greek: C CC "King Endybis". The Land of Punt also called Pwenet or Pwene32 by the ancient Egyptians (Greek: citation needed) was a trading partner known for producing and exporting gold aromatic resins African blackwood ebony ivory slaves and wild animals.33 Information about Punt has been found in ancient Egyptian records of trade missions to this region. At times the ancient Egyptians called Punt Ta netjer meaning "God's Land". Around the 8th century BC a kingdom known as Dmt was established in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. Its capital was around the current town of Yeha situated in northern Ethiopia. Most modern historians consider this civilization to be a native African one although Sabaean-influenced because of the latter's hegemony of the Red Sea34 while others view Dmt as the result of a mixture of Sabaeans of southern Arabia and indigenous peoples.35 However Ge'ez the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia is now thought not to have derived from Sabaean (also South Semitic). There is evidence of a Semitic-speaking presence in Ethiopia and Eritrea at least as early as 2000 BC.3637 Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor limited to a few localities and disappearing after a few decades or a century perhaps representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dmt or some other proto-Aksumite state.38 After the fall of Dmt in the 4th century BC the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century BC the Aksumite Empire ancestor of medieval and modern Ethiopia which was able to reunite the area.39 They established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau and from there expanded southward. The Persian religious figure Mani listed Aksum with Rome Persia and China as one of the four great powers of his time.40 In 316 AD a Christian philosopher from Tyre Meropius embarked on a voyage of exploration along the coast of Africa. He was accompanied by among others two Syro-Greeks Frumentius and his brother Aedesius. The vessel was stranded on the coast and the natives killed all the travelers except the two brothers who were taken to the court and given positions of trust by the monarch. They both practiced the Christian faith in private and soon converted the queen and several other members of the royal court. Middle Ages Lebna Dengel ngus ngst (Emperor) of Ethiopia and a member of the Solomonic dynasty. The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty is derived from the Cushitic-speaking Agaw of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 AD onwards for many centuries the Solomonic dynasty ruled the Ethiopian Empire. In the early 15th century Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.41 In 1428 the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.42 The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel who had just inherited the throne from his father.43 King Fasilides' Castle. This proved to be an important development for when the Empire was subjected to the attacks of the Adal General and Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (called "Gra" or "the Left-handed") Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.44 This EthiopianAdal War was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire and Portugal took sides in the conflict. However when Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624 years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.45 The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians and on 25 June 1632 Susenyos's son Emperor Fasilides declared the state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans.4647 Zemene Mesafint Emperor Tewodros II's rule is often placed as the beginning of modern Ethiopia ending the decentralized Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes). All of this contributed to Ethiopia's isolation from 1755 to 1855 called the Zemene Mesafint or "Age of Princes". The Emperors became figureheads controlled by warlords like Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray and by the Oromo Yejju dynasty such as Ras Gugsa of Begemder which later led to 17th century Oromo rule of Gondar changing the language of the court from Amharic to Afaan Oromo.4849 Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded an alliance between the two nations; however it was not until 1855 that Ethiopia was completely united and the power in the Emperor restored beginning with the reign of Emperor Tewodros II. Upon his ascent despite still large centrifugal forces he began modernizing Ethiopia and recentralizing power in the Emperor and Ethiopia began to take part in world affairs once again. But Tewodros suffered several rebellions inside his empire. Northern Oromo militias Tigrayan rebellion and the constant incursion of Ottoman Empire and Egyptian forces near the Red Sea brought the weakening and the final downfall of Emperor Tewodros II who committed suicide in 1868 after his last battle with a British expeditionary force. After Tewodros' death Tekle Giyorgis II was proclaimed Emperor but was defeated in the Battles of Zulawu (21 Jun 1871) and Adua (11 Jul 1871) by Dejazmach Kassai with the aid of John Kirkham a British advisor who had trained his troops with modern weapons. Tekle Giyorgis was captured and deposed and Kassai was declared Emperor Yohannes IV on 21 January 1872. In 1875 and 1876 Turkish/Egyptian forces accompanied by many European and American 'advisors' twice invaded Abyssinia but were intially defeated at the Battle of Gundet losing 800 men and then following the second invasion decisively defeated by Emperor Yohannes IV at the Battle of Gura on 7 March 1875 losing at least 3000 killed or captured.50 From 1885 to 1889 Ethiopia joined the Mahdist War allied to Britain Turkey and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. On 10 March 1889 Yonannes IV was killed whilst leading his army in the Battle of Gallabat (also called Battle of Metemma). From Menelik to Adwa Ethiopia as we currently know it began under the reign of Menelik II who was Emperor from 1889 until his death in 1913.51 From the central province of Shoa Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate the lands and people of the South East and West into an empire.52 He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia began expanding his kingdom to the south and east expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmed Gragn and other areas that had never been under his rule resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.53 At the same time there were also advances in road construction electricity and education development of a central taxation system and the foundation and building of the city of Addis Ababa which became capital of Shoa province in 1881 which Menelik then ruled as Ras and subsequently became the new capital of Abyssinia on his accession to the throne in 1889.54 Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889 in which Italy would recognize Ethiopias sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea).55 In return Italy was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor.56 The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians.57 This conflict erupted in the battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896 in which Italys colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.58 The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888 to 1892 cost it roughly one-third of its population.5960 Haile Selassie era Haile Selassie's reign as emperor of Ethiopia is the best known and perhaps most influential in the nation's history. He is seen by Rastafarians as Jah incarnate. The early 20th century was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. It was he who undertook the modernization of Ethiopia from 1916 when he was made a Ras and Regent (Inderase) for Zewditu I and became the de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death he was made Emperor on 2 November 1930. Haile Selassie was born from parents of the three main Ethiopian ethnicities of Oromo Amhara and Gurage. The independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and Italian occupation (19361941).61 During this time of attack Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations in 1935 delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and the 1935 Time magazine Man of the Year.62 Following the entry of Italy into World War II British Empire forces together with patriot Ethiopian fighters liberated Ethiopia in the course of the East African Campaign in 1941. This was followed by British recognition of full sovereignty (i.e. without any special British privileges) with the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944.63 During 1942 and 1943 there was an Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia. On 26 August 1942 Haile Selassie I issued a proclamation outlawing slavery.6465 Ethiopia had between two and four million slaves in early 20th century out of a total population of about eleven million.66 In 1952 Haile Selassie orchestrated the federation with Eritrea which he dissolved in 1962. This annexation sparked the Eritrean War of Independence. Although Haile Selassie was seen as a national hero opinion within Ethiopia turned against him owing to the worldwide oil crisis of 1973 food shortages uncertainty regarding the succession border wars and discontent in the middle class created through modernization.67 He played a leading role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity in 1963. Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974 when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta the "Derg" led by Mengistu Haile Mariam deposed him and established a one-party communist state which was called People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Mengistu Era The ensuing regime suffered several coups uprisings wide-scale drought and a huge refugee problem. In 1977 there was the Ogaden War when Somalia captured the part of the Ogaden region but Ethiopia was able to recapture the Ogaden after receiving military aid from the USSR Cuba South Yemen East Germany68 and North Korea including around 15000 Cuban combat troops. Hundreds of thousands were killed as a result of the red terror forced deportations or from the use of hunger as a weapon under Mengistu's rule.67 The Red Terror was carried out in response to what the government termed "White Terror" supposedly a chain of violent events assassinations and killings carried out by the opposition.69 In 2006 after a trial that lasted 12 years Ethiopia's Federal High Court in Addis Ababa found Mengistu guilty in absentia of genocide.70 In the beginning of 1980s a series of famines hit Ethiopia that affected around 8 million people leaving 1 million dead. Insurrections against Communist rule sprang up particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. In 1989 the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Concurrently the Soviet Union began to retreat from building World Communism under Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika policies marking a dramatic reduction in aid to Ethiopia from Socialist bloc countries. This resulted in even more economic hardship and the collapse of the military in the face of determined onslaughts by guerrilla forces in the north. The Collapse of Communism in general and in Eastern Europe during the Revolutions of 1989 coincided with the Soviet Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990. The strategic outlook for Mengistu quickly deteriorated. In May 1991 EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa and the Soviet Union did not intervene to save the government side. Mengistu fled the country to asylum in Zimbabwe where he still resides. The Transitional Government of Ethiopia composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution was set up. In June 1992 the Oromo Liberation Front withdrew from the government; in March 1993 members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition also left the government. In 1994 a new constitution was written that formed a bicameral legislature and a judicial system. The first formally multi-party election took place in May 1995 in which Meles Zenawi was elected the Prime Minister and Negasso Gidada was elected President. Recent history In 1993 a referendum was held and supervised by the UN mission UNOVER with universal suffrage and conducted both in and outside Eritrea (among Eritrean communities in the diaspora) on whether Eritreans wanted independence or unity with Ethiopia. Over 99% of the Eritrean people voted for independence which was declared on May 24 1993. In 1994 a constitution was adopted that led to Ethiopia's first multi-party elections in the following year. In May 1998 a border dispute with Eritrea led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War that lasted until June 2000. This has hurt the nation's economy but strengthened the ruling coalition. On 15 May 2005 Ethiopia held another multiparty election which was a highly disputed one with some opposition groups claiming fraud. Though the Carter Center approved the preelection conditions it has expressed its dissatisfaction with postelection matters. The 2005 EU election observers continued to accuse the ruling party of vote rigging. In general the opposition parties gained more than 200 parliamentary seats compared to the just 12 in the 2000 elections. Despite most opposition representatives joining the parliament certain leaders of the CUD party some of which refused to take up their parliamentary seats were accused of inciting the post-election violence that ensued and were imprisoned. Amnesty International considered them "prisoners of conscience" and they were subsequently released. The coalition of opposition parties and some individuals that was established in 2009 to oust at the general election in 2010 the regime of the EPRDF Meles Zenawis party that has been in power since 1991 published its 65-page manifesto in Addis Ababa on October 10 2009. Some of the eight member parties of this Ethiopian Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD or Medrek in Amharic) include the Oromo Federalist Congress (organized by the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement and the Oromo Peoples Congress) the Arena Tigray (organized by former members of the ruling party TPLF) the Unity for Democracy and Justice (UDJ whose leader is imprisoned) and the Coalition of Somali Democratic Forces. Politics Main article: Politics of Ethiopia See also: Rulers and Heads of State of Ethiopia Foreign relations of Ethiopia and Ethiopian National Defense Force The politics of Ethiopia takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary republic whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. On the basis of Article 78 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution the Judiciary is completely independent of the executive and the legislature.71 The current realities of this provision are questioned in a report prepared by Freedom House. According to The Economist in its Democracy Index published in late 2010 Ethiopia is an "authoritarian regime" ranking 118th out of 167 countries (with the larger number being less democratic).72 Ethiopia has dropped 12 places on the list since 2006 and the latest report attributes the drop to the regime's crackdown on opposition activities media and civil society before the 2010 parliamentary election which the report argues has made Ethiopia a de facto one-party state. Governance The election of Ethiopia's 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994. This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995 . Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections. There was a landslide victory for the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so. The current government of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The first President was Negasso Gidada. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles Zenawi promoted a policy of ethnic federalism devolving significant powers to regional ethnically based authorities. Ethiopia today has nine semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues. Under the present government some fundamental freedoms including freedom of the press are circumscribed.73 Citizens have little access to media other than the state-owned networks and most private newspapers struggle to remain open and suffer periodic harassment from the government.73 At least 18 journalists who had written articles critical of the government were arrested following the 2005 elections on genocide and treason charges. The government uses press laws governing libel to intimidate journalists who are critical of its policies.74 Zenawi's government was elected in 2000 in Ethiopia's first ever multiparty elections; however the results were heavily criticized by international observers and denounced by the opposition as fraudulent. The EPRDF also won the 2005 election returning Zenawi to power. Although the opposition vote increased in the election both the opposition and observers from the European Union and elsewhere stated that the vote did not meet international standards for fair and free elections.73 Ethiopian police are said to have massacred 193 protesters mostly in the capital Addis Ababa in the violence following the May 2005 elections in the Ethiopian police massacre.75 The government initiated a crackdown in the provinces as well; in Oromia state the authorities used concerns over insurgency and terrorism to use torture imprisonment and other repressive methods to silence critics following the election particularly people sympathetic to the registered opposition party Oromo National Congress (ONC).74 The government has been engaged in a conflict with rebels in the Ogaden region since 2007. The biggest opposition party in 2005 was the Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD). After various internal divisions most of the CUD party leaders have established the new Unity for Democracy and Justice party led by Judge Birtukan Mideksa. A member of the country's Oromo ethnic group Ms. Birtukan Mideksa is the first woman to lead a political party in Ethiopia. As of 2008 the top five opposition parties are the Unity for Democracy and Justice led by Judge Birtukan Mideksa United Ethiopian Democratic Forces led by Dr.Beyene Petros Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement led by Dr. Bulcha Demeksa Oromo People's Congress led by Dr. Merera Gudina and United Ethiopian Democratic Party-Medhin Party led by Lidetu Ayalew. Regions zones and districts This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2009) Main articles: Regions of Ethiopia Zones of Ethiopia and Districts of Ethiopia Before 1996 Ethiopia was divided into 13 provinces many derived from historical regions. Ethiopia now has a tiered government system consisting of a federal government overseeing ethnically based regional countries zones districts (woredas) and neighborhoods (kebele). Ethiopia is divided into nine ethnically based administrative countries (kililoch sing. kilil) and subdivided into sixty-eight zones and two chartered cities (astedader akababiwoch sing. astedader akababi): Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa (subdivisions 1 and 5 in the map respectively). It is further subdivided into 550 woredas and several special woredas. The constitution assigns extensive power to regional states that can establish their own government and democracy according to the federal government's constitution. Each region has its apex regional council where members are directly elected to represent the districts and the council has legislative and executive power to direct internal affairs of the regions. Article 39 of the Ethiopian Constitution further gives every regional state the right to secede from Ethiopia. There is debate however as to how much of the power guaranteed in the constitution is actually given to the states. The councils implement their mandate through an executive committee and regional sectoral bureaus. Such elaborate structure of council executive and sectoral public institutions is replicated to the next level (woreda). The regions and chartered cities of Ethiopia numbered alphabetically The nine regions and two chartered cities (in Italics) are: Addis Ababa Afar Amhara Benishangul-Gumuz Dire Dawa Gambela Harari Oromia Somali Southern Nations Nationalities and People's Region Tigray Geography Main article: Geography of Ethiopia Map of Ethiopia. At 435071 square miles (1126829 km2)76 Ethiopia is the world's 27th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Bolivia. It lies between latitudes 3 and 15N and longitudes 33 and 48E. The major portion of Ethiopia lies on the Horn of Africa which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. Bordering Ethiopia is Sudan to the west Djibouti and Eritrea to the north Somalia to the east and Kenya to the south. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands steppes or semi-desert. The great diversity of terrain determines wide variations in climate soils natural vegetation and settlement patterns. Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to the tropical forests in the south to extensive Afromontane in the northern and southwestern parts. Lake Tana in the north is the source of the Blue Nile. It also has a large number of endemic species notably the Gelada Baboon the Walia Ibex and the Ethiopian wolf (or Simien fox). The wide range of altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas this has helped to encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation. Climate Main article: Climate of Ethiopia The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation. The Ethiopian Highlands which cover most of the country have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 20002500 metres (65628202 ft) above sea level including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital Addis Ababa is situated on the foothills of Mount Entoto at an elevation of around 2400 metres (7874 ft) and experiences a healthy and pleasant climate year round. With fairly uniform year round temperatures the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall with a dry season from OctoberFebruary a light rainy season from MarchMay and a heavy rainy season from JuneSeptember. The average annual rainfall is around 1200 mm (47.2 in). There are on average 7 hours of sunshine per day meaning it is sunny for around 60% of the available time. The dry season is the sunniest time of the year though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 C (60.8 F) with daily maximum temperatures averaging 2025 C (6877 F) throughout the year and overnight lows averaging 510 C (4150 F). Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at a similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a comparable climate. In less elevated regions particularly the lower lying Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands in the east of the country the climate can be significantly hotter and drier. The town of Dallol in the Danakil Depression in this eastern zone has the world's highest average annual temperature of 34 C (93.2 F). Environment See also: Environmental issues in Ethiopia Wildlife Main article: Wildlife of Ethiopia The Ethiopian Wolf Ethiopia has 31 endemic species.77 The African Wild Dog prehistorically had widespread distribution in Ethiopia; however with last sightings at Fincha this canid is thought to be potentially extirpated within Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Wolf is perhaps the most researched of all the endangered species within Ethiopia. Historically throughout the African continent wildlife populations have been rapidly declining owing to logging civil wars hunting pollution poaching and other human interference.78 A 17-year-long civil war along with severe drought negatively impacted Ethiopia's environmental conditions leading to even greater habitat degradation.79 Habitat destruction is a factor that leads to endangerment. When changes to a habitat occur rapidly animals do not have time to adjust. Human impact threatens many species with greater threats expected as a result of climate change induced by greenhouse gas emissions.80 Ethiopia has a large number of species listed as critically endangered endangered and vulnerable to global extinction. To assess the current situation in Ethiopia it is critical that the endangered species in this region are identified. The endangered species in Ethiopia can be broken down into three categories; Critically endangered Endangered and Vulnerable.77 Critically endangered81 Endangered Vulnerable Bilen Gerbil Grevy's Zebra African Elephant Large-eared Free-tailed Bat Red-fronted Gazelle Black Rhinoceros Mountain Nyala Ammodile Lesser Horseshoe Bat Rupp's Mouse Ethiopian Wolf Nubian Ibex Bailey's Shrew Lion Scott's Mouse-eared Bat Guramba Shrew African Wild Dog Bale Shrew Moorland Shrew Soemmerring's Gazelle Harenna Shrew Beira Antelope Morris's Bat Speke's Gazelle MacMillan's Shrew Cheetah Mouse-tailed Bat species Spotted-necked Otter Walia Ibex Dibatag Natal Free-Tailed Bat Stripe-backed Mouse Dorcas Gazelle Nikolaus's Mouse Glass's Shrew Patrizi's Trident Leaf-nosed Bat Deforestation Main article: Environmental issues in Ethiopia Deforestation is a major concern for Ethiopia as studies suggest loss of forest contributes to soil erosion loss of nutrients in the soil loss of animal habitats and reduction in biodiversity. At the beginning of the 20th century around 420 000 km or 35% of Ethiopias land was covered by trees but recent research indicates that forest cover is now approximately 11.9% of the area.82 Ethiopia is one of the seven fundamental and independent centers of origin of cultivated plants of the world. Ethiopia loses an estimated 1 410 km of natural forests each year. Between 1990 and 2005 the country lost approximately 21 000 km.citation needed Current government programs to control deforestation consist of education promoting reforestation programs and providing alternate raw material to timber. In rural areas the government also provides non-timber fuel sources and access to non-forested land to promote agriculture without destroying forest habitat. Organizations such as SOS and Farm Africa are working with the federal government and local governments to create a system of forest management.83 Working with a grant of approximately 2.3 million euros the Ethiopian government recently began training people on reducing erosion and using proper irrigation techniques that do not contribute to deforestation. This project is assisting more than 80 communities. Economy Main article: Economy of Ethiopia See also: Foreign aid to Ethiopia Ethiopia has shown a fast-growing annual GDP and it was the fastest-growing non-oil-dependent African nation in 2007 and 2008.84 Since 1991 there have been attempts to improve the economy; however there has been some political opposition to the policies as well as a 2008 drought which slowed progress.85 The effectiveness of these policies is reflected in the ten-percent yearly economic growth from 20032008. Despite these economic improvements urban and rural poverty remains an issue in the country. Ethiopia is often ironically referred to as the "water tower" of Eastern Africa because of the many (14 major) rivers that pour off the high tableland. It also has the greatest water reserves in Africa but few irrigation systems in place to use it. Just 1% is used for power production and 1.5% for irrigation.86 Historically Ethiopia's feudal and communist economic structure has always kept it one rainless season away from devastating droughts. Ethiopia has great potential to be a producer as it is one of the most fertile counties in Africa. According to the New York Times Ethiopia "could easily become the breadbasket for much of Europe if her agriculture were better organized."citation needed Provision of telecommunications services is left to a state-owned monopoly. It is the view of the current government that maintaining state ownership in this vital sector is essential to ensure that telecommunication infrastructures and services are extended to rural Ethiopia which would not be attractive to private enterprises. Coffee farmer filling cups with coffee The Ethiopian constitution defines the right to own land as belonging only to "the state and the people" but citizens may only lease land (up to 99 years) and are unable to mortgage or sell. Renting of land for a maximum of twenty years is allowed and this is expected to ensure that land goes to the most productive user. Agriculture accounts for almost 41 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) 80 percent of exports and 80 percent of the labour force.citation needed Many other economic activities depend on agriculture including marketing processing and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly by small-scale farmers and enterprises and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops include coffee pulses (e.g. beans) oilseeds cereals potatoes sugarcane and vegetables. Recently Ethiopia has had a fast-growing annual GDP and it was the fastest-growing non-oil-dependent African nation in 2007.8788 Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities and coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. Ethiopia is Africa's second biggest maize producer.89 Ethiopia's livestock population is believed to be the largest in Africa and as of 1987 accounted for about 15 percent of the GDP.citation needed According to a recent UN report the GNP per capita of Ethiopia has reached $1541 (2009)citation needed. The same report indicated that the life expectancy had improved substantially in recent years. The life expectancy of men is reported to be 52 years and for women 54 years. Exports Ethiopia is the original source of the coffee bean and coffee beans are the country's largest export commodity.90 Ethiopia is also the 10th largest producer of livestock in the world. Other main export commodities are khat gold leather products and oilseeds. Recent development of the floriculture sector means Ethiopia is poised to become one of the top flower and plant exporters in the world.91 Exports from Ethiopia in the 2009/2010 financial year totaled $US1.4 billion. Neighbouring Kenya with half of Ethiopia's population exported goods worth US$5 billion during the same period.92 Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation. However in East Africa over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels and the unofficial trade of live cattle camels sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to Somalia Kenya and Djibouti generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).93 This trade helps lower food prices increase food security relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.93 However there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore the government of Ethiopia is purportedly unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.93 Recent initiatives have sought to document and regulate this trade.93 With the private sector growing slowly designer leather products like bags are becoming a big export business with Taytu becoming the first luxury designer label in the country.94 Additional small-scale export products include cereals pulses cotton sugarcane potatoes and hides. With the construction of various new dams and growing hydroelectric power projects around the country Ethiopia has also begun exporting electric power to its neighbors.959697 However coffee remains its most important export product and with new trademark deals around the world including recent deals with Starbucks the country plans to increase its revenue from coffee.98 Most regard Ethiopia's large water resources and potential as its "white oil" and its coffee resources as "black gold".99100 The country also has large mineral resources and oil potential in some of the less inhabited regions. Political instability in those regions however has inhibited development. Ethiopian geologists were implicated in a major gold swindle in 2008. Four chemists and geologists from the Ethiopian Geological Survey were arrested in connection with a fake gold scandal following complaints from buyers in South Africa. Gold bars from the National Bank of Ethiopia were found to be gilded metal by police costing the state around US$17 million according to the Science and Development Network website.101 Transportation Main article: Transportation in Ethiopia Ethiopia has 681 km of railway that mainly consists of the Addis Ababa Djibouti Railway with a 1000 mm (3 ft 3 38 in) narrow gauge. At present the railway is under joint control of Djibouti and Ethiopia but negotiations are underway to privatize this transport utility. As the first part of a 10-year Road Sector Development Program between 1997 and 2002 the Ethiopian government began a sustained effort to improve its infrastructure of roads. As a result as of 2002 Ethiopia has a total (Federal and Regional) 33 297 km of roads both paved and gravel. Demographics Main article: Demographics of Ethiopia See also: People of Ethiopia View from the Sheraton Hotel in Addis Ababa Ethiopia's population has grown from 33.5 million in 1983 to 75.1 million in 2006.102 The population was only about 9 million in the 19th century.103 The 2007 Population and Housing Census results show that the population of Ethiopia grew at an average annual rate of 2.6% between 1994 and 2007 down from 2.8% during the period 19831994. The country's population is highly diverse. Most of its people speak some Afro-Asiatic language mainly of the Semitic or the Cushitic branches. The Oromo Amhara Tigray and Somali make up three-quarters of the population but there are more than 80 different ethnic groups within Ethiopia. Some of these have as few as 10000 members. Ethiopians and Eritreans especially Semitic-speaking ones collectively refer to themselves as Habesha or Abesha though others reject these names on the basis that they refer only to certain ethnicities.104 The Arabic form of this term (Al-Habasha) is the etymological basis of "Abyssinia" the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages.105 According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007 the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia at 34.49% of the nation's population. The Amhara represent 26.89% of the country's inhabitants while the Somali and Tigray represent 6.20% and 6.07% of the population respectively. Other prominent ethnic groups are as follows: Sidama 4.01% Gurage 2.53% Wolayta 2.31% Afar 1.73% Hadiya 1.74% Gamo 1.50% Kefficho 1.18% and others 11%.12 In 2007 Ethiopia hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 201700. The majority of this population came from Somalia (approximately 111600 persons) Sudan (55400) and Eritrea (23900). The Ethiopian government required nearly all refugees to live in refugee camps.106 Languages Main article: Languages of Ethiopia Ethiopia has forty-eight indigenous languages. English is the most widely spoken foreign language and is the medium of instruction in secondary schools. Amharic was the language of primary school instruction but has been replaced in many areas by local languages such as Oromifa and Tigrinya. Ethiopia has its own alphabet called Ge'ez or Ethiopic () and calendar. Religion Main article: Religion in Ethiopia Religion in Ethiopia religion percent Christianity   62.8% Islam   33.9% African traditional religions   2.6% Others   0.6% A traditional Ethiopian depiction of Jesus and Mary Ethiopia has close historical ties to all three of the world's major Abrahamic religions. It was one of the first Christian countries in the world having officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century. It still has a Christian majority but a third of the population is Muslim. Ethiopia is the site of the first hijra in Islamic history and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. Until the 1980s a substantial population of Ethiopian Jews resided in Ethiopia. The country is also the spiritual homeland of the Rastafari religious movement that is influenced by Pan-Africanism and has globalized Ethiopian flag tricolors with the spread of Reggae music alongside Hip hop culture. According to the 2007 National Census Christians make up 62.8% of the country's population (43.5% Ethiopian Orthodox 19.3% other denominations) Muslims 33.9% practitioners of traditional faiths 2.6% and other religions 0.6%1 This is in agreement with the updated CIA World Factbook which states that Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in Ethiopia. According to the latest CIA factbook figure Muslims constitute 32.8% of the population.107 The Kingdom of Aksum was one of the first nations to officially accept Christianity when St. Frumentius of Tyre called Fremnatos or Abba Selama ("Father of Peace") in Ethiopia converted King Ezana during the 4th century AD. Many believe that the Gospel had entered Ethiopia even earlier with the royal official described as being baptised by Philip the Evangelist in chapter eight of the Acts of the Apostles. (Acts 8:2639) Today the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church part of Oriental Orthodoxy is by far the largest denomination though a number of Protestant (Pentay) churches and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tehadeso Church have recently gained ground. Since the 18th century there has existed a relatively small (uniate) Ethiopian Catholic Church in full communion with Rome with adherents making up less than 1% of the total population.1 Islam in Ethiopia dates back to the founding of the religion; in 615 when a group of Muslims were counseled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Ethiopia via modern day Eritrea which was ruled by Ashama ibn Abjar a pious Christian king. Moreover Bilal ibn Ribah the first Muezzin the person chosen to call the faithful to prayer and one of the foremost companions of Muhammad was from Abyssinia (Eritrea Ethiopia etc.). Also the largest single ethnic group of non-Arab Companions of Muhammad was that of the Ethiopians. A small ancient group of Jews the Beta Israel live in northwestern Ethiopia though most emigrated to Israel in the last decades of the 20th century as part of the rescue missions undertaken by the Israeli government Operation Moses and Operation Solomon.108 Some Israeli and Jewish scholars consider these Ethiopian Jews as a historical Lost Tribe of Israel. There are numerous indigenous African religions in Ethiopia mainly located in the far southwest and western borderlands. In general most of the (largely members of the non-Chalcedonian Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church) Christians live in the highlands while Muslims and adherents of traditional African religions tend to inhabit more lowland regions in the east and south of the country. Calendar Main article: Ethiopian calendar Ethiopia has its own calendar which is based on the Coptic calendar and is roughly eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. Urbanization Population growth migration and urbanization are all straining both governments' and ecosystems' capacity to provide people with basic services.109 Urbanization has steadily been increasing in Ethiopia with two periods of significantly rapid growth. First in 19361941 during the Italian occupation of Mussolinis fascist regime and from 1967 to 1975 when the populations of urban centers tripled.110 In 1936 Italy annexed Ethiopia building infrastructure to connect major cities and a dam providing power and water.111 This along with the influx of Italians and laborers was the major cause of rapid growth during this period. The second period of growth was from 1967 to 1975 when rural populations migrated to urban centers seeking work and better living conditions.110 This pattern slowed after to the 1975 Land Reform program instituted by the government provided incentives for people to stay in rural areas. As people moved from rural areas to the cities there were fewer people to grow food for the population. The Land Reform Act was meant to increase agriculture since food production was not keeping up with population growth over the period of 19701983.112 This program proliferated the formation of peasant associations large villages based on agriculture.112 The act did lead to an increase in food production although there is debate over the cause; it may be related to weather conditions more than the reform act.112 Urban populations have continued to grow with an 8.1% increase from 1975 to 2000.113 Street scene on Bole Road in Addis Ababa Rural and urban life Migration to urban areas is usually motivated by the hope of better lives. In peasant associations daily life is a struggle to survive. About 16% of the population in Ethiopia are living on less than 1 dollar per day (2008). Only 65% of rural households in Ethiopia consume the World Health Organization's minimum standard of food per day (2200 kilocalories) with 42% of children under 5 years old being underweight.114 Most poor families (75%) share their sleeping quarters with livestock and 40% of children sleep on the floor where nighttime temperatures average 5 degrees Celsius in the cold season.114 The average family size is six or seven living in a 30-square-meter mud and thatch hut with less than two hectares of land to cultivate.114 These living conditions are deplorable but are the daily lives of peasant associations. The peasant associations face a cycle of poverty. Since the landholdings are so small farmers cannot allow the land to lie fallow which reduces soil fertility.114 This land degradation reduces the production of fodder for livestock which causes low milk yields.114 Since the community burns livestock manure as fuel rather than plowing the nutrients back into the land the crop production is reduced.114 The low productivity of agriculture leads to inadequate incomes for farmers hunger malnutrition and disease. These unhealthy farmers have a hard time working the land and the productivity drops further.114 Although conditions are drastically better in cities all of Ethiopia suffers from poverty and poor sanitation. In the capital city of Addis Ababa 55% of the population lives in slums.111 Although there are some wealthy neighborhoods with mansions most people make their houses using whatever materials are available with walls made of mud or wood. Only 12% of homes have cement tiles or floors.111 Sanitation is the most pressing need in the city with most of the population lacking access to waste treatment facilities. This contributes to the spread of illness through unhealthy water.111 Despite the living conditions in the cities the people of Addis Ababa are much better off than people living in the peasant associations owing to their educational opportunities. Unlike rural children 69% of urban children are enrolled in primary school and 35% of those eligible for secondary school attend.111 Addis Ababa has its own university as well as many other secondary schools. The literacy rate is 82%.111 Health is also much greater in the cities. Birth rates infant mortality rates and death rates are lower in the city than in rural areas owing to better access to education and hospitals.111 Life expectancy is higher at 53 compared to 48 in rural areas.111 Despite sanitation being a problem use of improved water sources is also greater; 81% in cities compared to 11% in rural areas.113 This encourages more people to migrate to the cities in hopes of better living conditions. Many NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) are working to solve this problem; however most are far apart uncoordinated and working in isolation.113 The Sub-Saharan Africa NGO Consortium is attempting to coordinate efforts among NGOs in Uganda Kenya Tanzania Zambia South Africa Zimbabwe Ethiopia Sudan Cameroon the Democratic Republic of Congo Senegal Ivory Coast Mali Ghana and Nigeria.113 Health Main article: Health in Ethiopia According to the head of the World Bank's Global HIV/AIDS Program Ethiopia has only 1 medical doctor per 100000 people.115 However the World Health Organization in its 2006 World Health Report gives a figure of 1936 physicians (for 2003)116 which comes to about 2.6 per 100000. Globalization is said to affect the country with many educated professionals leaving Ethiopia for a better economic opportunity in the West. Ethiopia's main health problems are said to be communicable diseases caused by poor sanitation and malnutrition. These problems are exacerbated by the shortage of trained manpower and health facilities.117 There are 119 hospitals (12 in Addis Ababa alone) and 412 health centers in Ethiopia.118 Ethiopia has a relatively low average life expectancy of 45 years.119 Infant mortality rates are relatively very high as over 8% of infants die during or shortly after childbirth119 (although this is a dramatic decrease from 16% in 1965) while birth-related complications such as obstetric fistula affect many of the nation's women. HIV is also prevalent in the country. The other major health problem in Ethiopia is spread of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS has mainly affected poor communities and women due to lack of health education empowerment awareness and lack of social well being. The government of Ethiopia and many private organizations like World health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations are launching campaigns and are working aggressively to improve Ethiopias health conditions and promote health awareness on AIDS and other communicable diseases (Dugassa 2005). Many believe that sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea result from touching a stone after a female dog urinates on it and there is a general belief that these diseases are caused by bad spirits and supernatural causes. Others believe that eating the reproductive organs of a black goat will help expel the diseases from those same organ in their body (Kater 2000). Ethiopia has high infant and maternal mortality rate. Only a minority of Ethiopians are born in hospitals; most of them are born in rural households. Those who are expected to give birth at home have elderly women serve as midwives assist with the delivery (Kater 2000) The increase in infant and maternal mortality rate is believed to be due to lack of womens involvement in household decision- making immunization and social capital (Fantahun Berhane Wall Byass & Hogberg 2007). On the other hand the WHO estimates that a majority of maternal fatalities and disabilities could be prevented if deliveries were to take place at well-equipped health centers with adequately trained staff (Dorman et al. 2009 p. 622). The low availability of health care professionals with modern medical training together with lack of funds for medical services leads to the preponderancy of less reliable traditional healers that use home-based therapies to heal common ailments. One medical practice that is commonly practiced irrespective of religion or economic status is female genital mutilation a procedure by which some of the woman's genital areas are cut or burned away in order to preserve her chastity. Sometimes most of the tissue covering the vagina may be removed. This procedure is often carried out without anesthesia and crude instruments such as broken glass scissors or knives may be used on the woman. This procedure is carried out when the girl is usually a small child.120 As of 1965 close to four out of five Ethiopian women were circumcised.120 Female circumcision consists of cutting the clitoral hood and in some cases the entire clitoris. According to a study performed by the Population Reference Bureau Ethiopia has a prevalence rate of 81 percent among women ages 35 to 39 and 62 percent among women ages 1519.121 Ethiopias 2005 Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) noted that the national prevalence rate is 74 percent among women ages 1549.122 The practice is almost universal in the regions of Somali Affar and Dire Dawa in Oromo and Harari more than 80 % of girls and women are affected. FGM is least prevalent in the regions of Tigray and Gambela where 29 % and 27 % respectively of girls and women are affected.123 This practice is considered offensive and cruel by Western societies but in Ethiopia this is part of the culture and is seen as an effective way to ensure the sexual purity of girls. However today this practice is decreasing and women are refusing to undergo this procedure. This practice is considered as harmful and government and private organizations are working to eliminate it (Rahlenbeck & Mekonnen 2009). Although female genital mutilation and cutting is against the law in many parts of Ethiopia tradition is stronger than the law. Most people believe the practice will guarantee a young girls virginity a prerequisite for an honorable marriage. In a joint statement from the World Health Organization (WHO) United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) female genital mutilation is defined as all procedures involving partial or total removal of the female external genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons.124 It is estimated that FGM dates back 2000 years ago but there are differing opinions concerning its origin. According to the WHO there are four major types of female genital mutilation: 1. Clitoridectomy: partial or total removal of the clitoris (a small sensitive and erectile part of the female genitals) and in very rare cases only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris). 2. Excision: partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora with or without excision of the labia majora (the labia are "the lips" that surround the vagina). 3. Infibulation: narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and repositioning the inner or outer labia with or without removal of the clitoris. 4. Other/Unclassified: all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes e.g. pricking piercing incising scraping and cauterizing the genital area. Because the damage to females is so extensive during the cutting process the term female circumcision does not accurately describe what women endure. In male circumcision the foreskin is removed without damaging the penis itself. However circumcision of females is equivalent to cutting off the head of the penis. The male equivalent of a clitoridectomy would be the amputation of most of the penis. The male equivalent of infibulation would be the removal of the entire penis its roots of soft tissue and part of the scrotal skin. But while a man would not normally experience further complications once the wound heals the scars created by the female operation lead to terrible problems at childbirth as normal dilation is prevented and complications when it comes to sexual intercourse. Half of all women subjected to FGM in Ethiopia have their clitoral hood cut. In the remaining cases the clitoris and/or the labia minora are cut. Infibulation only occurs in a limited number of ethnic groups and appears to be losing ground. The Government of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia is signatory to various international conventions and treaties that protect the rights of women and children. Its constitution provides for the fundamental rights and freedoms for women. There is an attempt being made to raise the social and economic status of women through eliminating all legal and customary practices such as FGM which hinder womens equal participation in society and undermine their social status. In 2004 the Ethiopian Government enacted a law against FGM; however there have yet to be any prosecutions have yet been brought under this law. The constitution gives women the right to protection from harmful customs. Practices such as FGM that oppress women and cause harm are prohibited. It is important to not only have the legal provisions but also to create a dialogue surrounding this issue. FGM continues to be practice primarily because of the fear that girls and their families will be marginalized if they refuse to comply with this established social and cultural norm. One strategy being used to foster open discussion is community dialogue. It is important for religious leaders to establish that Islam does not allow female genital mutilation and cutting. Education Main article: Education in Ethiopia See also: List of universities and colleges in Ethiopia Education in Ethiopia had been dominated by the Orthodox Church for many centuries until secular education was adopted in the early 1900s.The current system follows very similar school expansion schemes to the rural areas as the previous 1980s system with an addition of deeper regionalisation giving rural education in their own languages starting at the elementary level and with more budget allocated to the education sector. The sequence of general education in Ethiopia is six years of primary school four years of lower secondary school and two years of higher secondary school.125 in 2004 school enrollment was below that of many other African countries.126 Half the population of Ethiopia are illiterate.127 Culture Main article: Culture of Ethiopia Cuisine Typical Ethiopian cuisine: Injera (pancake-like bread) and several kinds of wat (stew). Main article: Ethiopian cuisine The best known Ethiopian cuisine consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entres usually a wat or thick stew served atop injera a large sourdough flatbread made of teff flour. One does not eat with utensils but instead uses injera to scoop up the entres and side dishes. Tihlo prepared from roasted barley flour is very popular in Amhara Agame and Awlaelo (Tigrai). Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no pork or shellfish of any kind as they are forbidden in the Islamic Jewish and Ethiopian Orthodox Christian faiths. It is also very common to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people. Music Main article: Music of Ethiopia Mahmoud Ahmed an Ethiopian singer of Gurage ancestry in 2005 The music of Ethiopia is extremely diverse with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinct modal system that is pentatonic with characteristically long intervals between some notes. Influences include ancient Christian elements and Muslim and folk music from elsewhere in the Horn of Africa especially Sudan and Somalia. Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles of polyphony (heterophony drone imitation counterpoint). Popular musicians include Mahmoud Ahmed Teddy Afro Tilahun Gessesse Aster Aweke Muluken Melesse Bizunesh Bekele Tadesse Alemu Alemayehu Eshete Asnaketch Worku Ali Birra Tewodros Taddese Gigi and Mulatu Astatke. Sport Main article: Sport in Ethiopia The main sports in Ethiopia are athletics and football. Ethiopian athletes have won many Olympic gold medals in track and field particularly distance running. Haile Gebrselassie is a world-renowned marathon runner having set the world record several times. Another sportsman Kenenisa Bekele is also a dominant runner particularly in the 5000 and 10000 meters. Other notable Ethiopian athletes are Abebe Bikila Mamo Wolde Miruts Yifter Derartu Tulu Tirunesh Dibaba Meseret Defar and Gelete Burka. See also Ethiopia portal Main articles: Outline of Ethiopia and Index of Ethiopia-related articles Archaeology in Ethiopia Link Ethiopia Aethiopia (Classical Greek term) References Constructs such as ibid. and loc. cit. are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide) or an abbreviated title. (November 2010) a b c d 2007 Census Jimmatimes.comPDF (51.7 KB) . Retrieved 3 may 2009. a b Embassy of Ethiopia Washington DC. Retrieved 6 April 2006.dead link The World Factbook. CIA The World Factbook a b c d "Ethiopia". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspxpr.x52&pr.y2&sy2008&ey2011&scsm1&ssd1&sortcountry&ds.&br1&c644&sNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp0&a. Retrieved 2011-04-21.  "Ethiopia Africa's second most-populous country". Nctimes.com. 2007-05-30. http://www.nctimes.com/news/national/article06b9f13d-293d-5e47-9452-ab8eda278f0e.html. Retrieved 2010-06-02.  Speaking after his signing the disputed treaty between Ethiopia and Italy in 1889 Emperor Menelik II made clear his position: "We cannot permit our integrity as a Christian and civilized nation to be questioned nor the right to govern our empire in absolute independence. The Emperor of Ethiopia is a descendant of a dynasty that is 3000 years old  a dynasty that during all that time has never submitted to an outsider. Ethiopia has never been conquered and she never shall be conquered by anyone." Ethiopia Unbound: Studies In Race Emancipation p. xxv by Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford "Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of Homo sapiens". Nature. 16 February 2005. Archived from the original on December 15 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071215171811/http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050214/full/050214-10.html. Retrieved 2008-02-02.  Li J. Z.; Absher DM; Tang H; Southwick AM; Casto AM; Ramachandran S; Cann HM; Barsh GS et al. (February 2008). "Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation". Science 319 (5866): 11001104. doi:10.1126/science.1153717. PMID 18292342. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/319/5866/1100.  "Humans Moved From Africa Across Globe DNA Study Says". 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December 21 1987 Pankhurst R. The Great Ethiopian Famine of 18881892: A New Assessment. J Hist Med Allied Sci (1966) XXI(2): 95124.doi: 10.1093/jhmas/XXI.2.95 Clapham Christopher "ayl llase" in Siegbert von Uhlig ed. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag 2005) pp. 10623. Monday Jan. 06 1936 (1936-01-06). "Man of the Year". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171755559-100.html. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  Clapham "ayl llase" Encyclopaedia Aethiopica p. 1063. "Ethiopia" (PDF). http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/ethiopia.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-02.  "Chronology of slavery". MertSahinoglu.com. 1994-02-23. http://mertsahinoglu.com/research/chronology-of-slavery/. Retrieved 2009-09-29.  "Women and Slavery: Africa the Indian Ocean world and the medieval north Atlantic". Gwyn Campbell Suzanne Miers Joseph Calder Miller (2007). Ohio University Press. p.219. ISBN 0-8214-1724-X a b Black Book of Communism p. 687695 Dagne Haile Gabriel (2006). 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Retrieved 22 November 2006 from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 538367341). "Ethiopia sees Africa's fastest growth". Afrol.com. http://www.afrol.com/articles/28991. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  "Six million children threatened by Ethiopia drought: UN". Terradaily.com. http://www.terradaily.com/reports/SixmillionchildrenthreatenedbyEthiopiadroughtUN999.html. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  "Water tower of east africa". BBC News. 2004-01-09. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/thisworld/3359367.stm. Retrieved 2010-06-02.  Giorgis Tamrat G. (2007-01-27). "IMF Positive on Ethiopias Growth Outlook". Addis Fortune. Archived from the original on February 23 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080223234045/http://www.addisfortune.com/IMF+Positive+on+Ethiopia%92s+Growth+Outlook.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-02.  "Ethiopia has fastest growing African economy that is not Oil dependent". Jimma Times. 2008-01-09. http://www.jimmatimes.com/article.cfmarticleID17566. Retrieved 2008-02-02.  "Get the gangsters out of the food chain". The Economist. 2007-06-07. http://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfmstoryid9304411. Retrieved 2008-02-02.  "Starbucks in Ethiopia coffee vow". BBC. 21 June 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6225514.stm. Retrieved 2007-06-21. "Starbucks has agreed a wide-ranging accord with Ethiopia to support and promote its coffee ending a long-running dispute over the issue. ... Ethiopia is Africa's largest coffee producer ahead of Uganda and the Ivory Coast and coffee is its largest source of foreign exchange."  "Ethiopia's flower trade in full bloom". Mail & Guardian. 19 February 2006. http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspxarticleid264689&area/breakingnews/breakingnewsbusiness/. Retrieved 2007-06-21. "Floriculture has become a flourishing business in Ethiopia in the past five years with the industry's exports earnings set to grow to $100-million by 2007 a five-fold increase on the $20-million earned in 2005. Ethiopian flower exports could generate an estimated $300-million within two to three years according to the head of the government export-promotion department Melaku Legesse."  page 49 The Economist May 22 2010 a b c d Pavanello Sara 2010. Working across borders Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands. London: Overseas Development Institute Averill Victoria (2007-05-31). "Ethiopia's designs on leather trade". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6703551.stm. Retrieved 2007-06-21. "The label inside the luxuriously soft black leather handbag reads Taytu: Made In Ethiopia. But the embroidered print on the outside the chunky bronze rings attached to the fashionably short straps and the oversized "it" bag status all scream designer chic."  "Water resource revenue potentials being tackled in ethiopia". Waterpowermagazine.com. 2006-07-10. http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/story.aspsc2037246. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  "Largest hydro electric power plant goes smoothly". English.people.com.cn. 2006-04-12. http://english.people.com.cn/200604/12/eng20060412257767.html. Retrieved 2010-06-02.  "Hydroelectric Power Plant built". Addistribune.com. http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2004/02/27-02-04/New.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  Foek Anton (2007-05-16). "new coffee deal with Starbucks". Alternet.org. http://www.alternet.org/story/51936/. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  Ethiopia water resources referred as "White oil"dead link Independent Online. "Ethiopia hopes to power neighbours with dams". Int.iol.co.za. http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.phpsetid1&clickid87&artidqw1145360700509B231. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  "Sub-Saharan Africa news in brief: 1325 March". SciDev.Net. 2008-03-28. http://www.scidev.net/en/sub-suharan-africa/news/sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-13-25-march.html. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  Diercke Landerlexicon 1983 "The Economics of the Indian Ocean slave trade in the nineteenth century". W. G. Clarence-Smith (1989). p.100. ISBN 0-7146-3359-3 " About us". Abesha.com. http://www.abesha.com/abesha18/aboutus.php. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  Time Europe  Abyssinia: Ethiopian Protestdead link 9 August 1926 "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 2008-06-19. http://www.refugees.org/survey.  "CIA The World Factbook Ethiopia". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/et.html. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  "The History of Ethiopian Jews". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  Racin L. "Future Shock: How Environmental Change and Human Impact Are Changing the Global Map" Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars 2008. Wilsoncenter.org a b Ofcansky T and Berry L. "Ethiopia: A Country Study". Editied by Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress 1991. Countrystudies.us a b c d e f g h Shivley K. "Addis Ababa Ethiopia" Macalester.edu Accessed 15 May 2008. a b c Anderson Frank. Belete Abenet Dillon John L. "Development of Agriculture in Ethiopia since the 1975 land reform" Agricultural Economics. Blackwell. 2 December 1991. Pages 159175 a b c d Worldbank.org Accessed 5-10-08not specific enough to verify a b c d e f g Crawley Mike. "Breaking the Cycle of Poverty in Ethiopia". April 2003. International Development Research Centre. Retrieved on 24 May 2008 from the IDRC website. Idl-bnc.idrc.ca BBC The World Today 24 July 2007 "Global distribution of health workers in WHO Member States" (PDF). The World Health Report 2006. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/whr/2006/annex/06annex4en.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-02.  "Ethiopia Health and Welfare". Countrystudies.us. http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/75.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-16.  "Ethiopia" (PDF). Archived from the original on June 24 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080624223842/http://www.etharc.org/publications/june2005whoestimateeth.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-02. dead link a b Aids Action (The International News Letter on AIDS Prevention and Care): Issue 46 Health Link World Wide (OctoberDecember 1999) a b Pankhurst Richard. A Historical Examination of Traditional Ethiopian Medicine. Ethiopian Medical Journal 3:157172 (1965). Fedman-Jacobs and Clifton Female Geintal Mutilation/Cutting:Data and Trends-Update 2010 http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2010/fgm2010.aspx. Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (Central Statistics Agency 2005) p. 1. "Female Genital Mutilation in Ethiopia" Africa Department 2007. Female Genital Mutilations: A Joint WHO/UNICEF/UNFPA Statement World Health Organization (Geneva: World Health Organization 1997) p.3. Damtew Teferra and Philip. G. Altbach eds. African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook Indiana University Press 2003 pp. 316325 "Ethiopia" (PDF). http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/English/Natreps/reports/ethiopiascan.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-30.  "Globalis an interactive world map Ethiopia Adult illiteracy". Globalis.gvu.unu.edu. http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicatordetail.cfmcountryET&indicatorid27. Retrieved 2009-12-30.  Further reading  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the CIA World Factbook. Zewde Bahru (2001). A History of Modern Ethiopia 18551991. 2nd ed. Athens OH: Ohio University Press. ISBN 0821414402.  Selassie I. Haile (1999). My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Translated by Edward Ullendorff. Chicago: Frontline. ISBN 0948390409.  Henze Paul B. (2004). Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. Shama Books. ISBN 1-931253-28-5.  Marcus Harold G. (1975). The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 18441913. Oxford U.K.: Clarendon.  Reprint Trenton NJ: Red Sea 1995. ISBN 1-56902-009-4. Marcus Harold G. (2002). A History of Ethiopia (updated ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520224795.  Mockler Anthony (1984). Haile Selassie's War. New York: Random House.  Reprint New York: Olive Branch 2003. ISBN 1-902669-53-3. Pankhurst Richard. "History of Northern Ethiopia  and the Establishment of the Italian Colony or Eritrea". Civic Webs Virtual Library. http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/ethiopia/pankhurst/historyofnorthernethiopia.htm. Retrieved 5 April 2008.  Rubenson Sven (2003). The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (4th ed.). Hollywood CA: Tsehai. ISBN 0972317279.  Siegbert Uhlig et al. (eds.) (2003). Encyclopaedia aethiopica Vol. 1: A-C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. Siegbert Uhlig et al. (eds.) (2005). Encyclopaedia aethiopica Vol. 2: D-Ha. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. Siegbert Uhlig et al. (eds.) (2007). Encyclopaedia aethiopica Vol. 3: He-N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. Arnaldo Mauri The Early Development of Banking in Ethiopia International Review of Economics Vol. L n. 4 2003 pp. 521543. Arnaldo Mauri The re-establishment of the national monetary and banking system in Ethiopia 19411964 The South African Journal of Economic History 24 (2) 2009 pp. 82131. External links Find more about Ethiopia on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica article Abyssinia. News related to Category:Ethiopia at Wikinews Global Integrity Report: Ethiopia has reporting on governance and corruption. Ethiopia entry at The World Factbook Ethiopia at the Open Directory Project Wikimedia Atlas of Ethiopia Ethiopian Tourism Commission Ministry of Culture and Tourism Ethiopia travel guide from Wikitravel nazret.com Ethiopian news portal Ethiopian News Agency government news agency Consulate of the Republic of Ethiopia in Hungary Consulate -Budapest-Hungary "Ethiopia Slavery and the League of Nations" Abyssinia/Ethiopia slavery and slaves trade Ethiopian Population 2011 Census  Links to related articles v d e Ethiopia topics Regions Addis Ababa  Afar  Amhara  Benishangul-Gumuz  Dire Dawa  Gambela  Harari  Oromia  Somali  Southern Nations Nationalities and People's Region  Tigray History Demographic  Economic  Military Timeline  Early  Kingdom of Dmt  Kingdom of Aksum   Zagwe Dynasty   Abyssinian-Adal War   Zemene Mesafint   Second Italo-Abyssinian War   East African Campaign   Derg   Ethiopian Civil War   Ogaden War Economy History  Transport  Communications  Agriculture  Energy  Foreign aid  Industrial development  Land reform  Manufacturing  Trade Unions  Companies  Ethiopian Birr  Banks  Taxation  International rankings Politics  Military Constitution (history)  President  Prime Minister  Foreign relations  Foreign Aid  Ethiopian National Defense Force  Ethiopian Air Force  Ethiopian Navy  Military history  Human rights  LGBT rights Geography Demographics Geology  Mountains  Lakes  Rivers  Volcanoes  Languages  Religion   Social order  Ethnic groups  Health  Districts  Cities Culture Art  Cuisine  Education  Ethiopian Christianity  Literature  Media  Music  Public Holidays  Sport  Geographic locale v d eCountries and territories of Africa Sovereign states Algeria  Angola  Benin  Botswana  Burkina Faso  Burundi  Cameroon  Cape Verde  Central African Republic  Chad  Comoros  Democratic Republic of the Congo  Republic of the Congo  Cte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)  Djibouti  Egypt  Equatorial Guinea  Eritrea  Ethiopia  France (Mayotte  Runion)  Gabon  The Gambia  Ghana  Guinea  Guinea-Bissau  Italy (Pantelleria)  Kenya  Lesotho  Liberia  Libya  Madagascar  Malawi  Mali  Mauritania  Mauritius  Morocco  Mozambique  Namibia  Niger  Nigeria  Portugal (Madeira)  Rwanda  So Tom and Prncipe  Senegal  Seychelles  Sierra Leone  Somalia  South Africa  Spain (Canary Islands  Ceuta  Melilla  Plazas de soberana)  Sudan  Swaziland  Togo  Tanzania  Tunisia  Uganda  Yemen (Socotra)  Zambia  Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic  Somaliland Dependencies les parses (France)  Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom) Unclear sovereignty Western Sahara  International membership v d eMember states of the African Union (AU) Algeria  Angola  Benin  Botswana  Burkina Faso  Burundi  Cameroon  Cape Verde  Central African Republic  Chad  Comoros  Democratic Republic of the Congo  Republic of the Congo  Cte d'Ivoire  Djibouti  Egypt  Equatorial Guinea  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Gabon  The Gambia  Ghana  Guinea  Guinea-Bissau  Kenya  Lesotho  Liberia  Libya  Madagascar  Malawi  Mali  Mauritania  Mauritius  Mozambique  Namibia  Niger  Nigeria  Rwanda  Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic  So Tom and Prncipe  Senegal  Seychelles  Sierra Leone  Somalia  South Africa  Sudan  Swaziland  Tanzania  Togo  Tunisia  Uganda  Zambia  Zimbabwe  Languages v d eAfro-Asiatic-speaking countries Berber  Algeria   Egypt   Libya   Mali   Mauritania   Morocco   Niger   Tunisia Chadic  Cameroon   Chad   Niger   Nigeria Cushitic  Djibouti   Eritrea   Ethiopia   Kenya   Somalia   Tanzania Beja  Egypt   Eritrea   Sudan Egyptian  Egypt Omotic  Ethiopia Semitic Arabic / Maltese  Algeria   Bahrain   Djibouti   Egypt   Iraq   Israel   Jordan   Kuwait   Lebanon   Libya   Malta   Mauritania   Morocco   Oman   Qatar   Saudi Arabia   Somalia   Sudan1   Syria   Tunisia   UAE   Yemen Northwest Semitic2  Iraq   Israel   Syria  South Semitic  Eritrea   Ethiopia   Oman   Yemen 1 excluding Southern Sudan    2 Aramaic and Hebrew