"Geographical" redirects here. For the magazine of the Royal Geographical Society see Geographical (magazine). For other uses see Geography (disambiguation). Map of the Earth

Geography (from Greek - geographia lit. "earth describe-write"1) is the science that deals with the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena.2 A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes (276-194 BC). Four historical traditions in geographical research are the spatial analysis of natural and human phenomena (geography as a study of distribution) area studies (places and regions) study of man-land relationship and research in earth sciences.3 Nonetheless modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that foremost seeks to understand the Earth and all of its human and natural complexitiesnot merely where objects are but how they have changed and come to be. Geography has been called 'the world discipline'.4 As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences" geography is divided into two main brancheshuman geography and physical geography.56 Part of a series on Science Formal sciences

Mathematics Mathematical logic Computer science Mathematical statistics Physical sciences

Physics Applied physics  Atomic physics Computational physics Condensed matter physics Experimental physics  Mechanics Particle physics  Plasma physics Quantum mechanics (introduction) Solid mechanics  Theoretical physics Thermodynamics  Entropy General relativity  M-theory Special relativity

Chemistry Acid-base reaction theories  Alchemy Analytical chemistry  Astrochemistry Biochemistry  Crystallography Environmental chemistry  Food science Geochemistry  Green chemistry Inorganic chemistry  Materials science Molecular physics  Nuclear chemistry Organic chemistry  Photochemistry Physical chemistry  Radiochemistry Solid-state chemistry  Stereochemistry Supramolecular chemistry Surface science  Theoretical chemistry

Astronomy Astrophysics  Cosmology Galactic astronomy  Planetary geology Planetary science  Stellar astronomy

Earth sciences Atmospheric sciences  Ecology Environmental science  Geodesy Geology  Geomorphology Geophysics  Glaciology  Hydrology Limnology  Mineralogy  Oceanography Paleoclimatology  Palynology Physical geography  Soil science Space science Life sciences

Biology Anatomy  Astrobiology  Biochemistry Biogeography  Biological engineering  Biophysics Behavioral neuroscience  Biotechnology Botany  Cell biology  Conservation biology  Cryobiology Developmental biology Ecology  Ethnobiology Evolutionary biology (introduction) Genetics (introduction) Gerontology  Immunology  Limnology Marine biology  Microbiology Molecular biology  Neuroscience Paleontology  Parasitology  Physiology Radiobiology  Soil biology Systematics  Theoretical biology Toxicology  Zoology Social and Behavioural sciences

Anthropology  Archaeology Criminology  Demography Economics  Geography History  Linguistics Political science  Psychology Sociology Applied sciences

Engineering Agricultural  Aerospace  Biomedical Chemical  Civil  Computer Electrical  Fire protection  Genetic Industrial  Mechanical  Military Mining  Nuclear  Operations research Software Health sciences Biological engineering  Dentistry Epidemiology  Health care  Medicine Nursing  Pharmacy  Social work Veterinary medicine Related topics Interdisciplinarity Applied physics  Artificial intelligence Bioethics  Bioinformatics  Biogeography Biomedical engineering  Biostatistics Cognitive science  Computational linguistics Cultural studies  Cybernetics Environmental studies  Ethnic studies Evolutionary psychology  Forestry Health  Library science  Logic Mathematical biology  Mathematical physics Scientific modelling  Neural engineering Neuroscience  Political economy Science and technology studies Science studies  Semiotics  Sociobiology Systems theory  Transdisciplinarity Urban planning Scientific method History of science Philosophy of science Science policy Humanities Fringe science Pseudoscience v d e Contents 1 Introduction 2 Branches 2.1 Physical geography 2.2 Human geography 2.3 Environmental geography 2.4 Geomatics 2.5 Regional geography 2.6 Related fields 3 Techniques 3.1 Cartography 3.2 Geographic information systems 3.3 Remote sensing 3.4 Quantitative methods 3.5 Qualitative methods 4 History 5 Notable geographers 6 Institutions and societies 7 Publications 8 See also 9 Notes and references 10 External links Introduction Traditionally geographers have been viewed the same way as cartographers and people who study place names and numbers. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena processes and features as well as the interaction of humans and their environment.7 As space and place affect a variety of topics such as economics health climate plants and animals geography is highly interdisciplinary. ...mere names of places...are not geography...know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not in itself constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world in so far as it treats of the latter) to compare to generalize to ascend from effects to causes and in doing so to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Sciencea thing not of mere names but of argument and reason of cause and effect.8   William Hughes 1863 Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main subsidiary fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate vegetation & life soil water and landforms are produced and interact.9 As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged which is environmental geography. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.7 Branches Physical geography Main article: Physical geography Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and issues of : lithosphere hydrosphere atmosphere pedosphere and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere). Physical geography can be divided into the following broad categories: Biogeography Climatology & paleoclimatology Coastal geography Env. geog. & management Geodesy Geomorphology Glaciology Hydrology & Hydrography Landscape ecology Oceanography Pedology Palaeogeography Quaternary science Human geography Main article: Human geography Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses human political cultural social and economic aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see physical geography) it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two. Human geography can be divided into many broad categories such as: Cultural geography Development geography Economic geography Health geography Historical & Time geog. Political geog. & Geopolitics Pop. geog. or Demography Religion geography Social geography Transportation geography Tourism geography Urban geography Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include: Behavioral geography Feminist geography Culture theory Geosophy Environmental geography Main article: Environmental geography Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment. Environmental geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Furthermore as human relationship with the environment has changed as a result of globalization and technological change a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include emergency management environmental management sustainability and political ecology. Geomatics Main article: Geomatics Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Geomatics is a branch of geography that has emerged since the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid 1950s. Geomatics involves the use of traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography and their application to computers. Geomatics has become a widespread field with many other disciplines using techniques such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has also led to a revitalization of some geography departments especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s. Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with spatial analysis such as Cartography Geographic information systems (GIS) Remote sensing and Global positioning systems (GPS). Regional geography Main article: Regional geography Regional geography is a branch of geography that studies the regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions. Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences (similar to quantitative or critical geographies for more information see History of geography). Related fields Urban planning regional planning and spatial planning: use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria such as safety beauty economic opportunities the preservation of the built or natural heritage and so on. The planning of towns cities and rural areas may be seen as applied geography. Regional science: In the 1950s the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role such as regional economics resource management location theory urban and regional planning transport and communication human geography population distribution landscape ecology and environmental quality. Interplanetary Sciences: While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds such as the planets of the Solar System and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology. The study of other planets is usually called planetary science. Alternative terms such as Areology (the study of Mars) have been proposed but are not widely used. Techniques As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science maps are a key tool. Classical cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis computer-based geographic information systems (GIS). In their study geographers use four interrelated approaches: Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally. Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet. Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations. Analytical - Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area. Cartography Main article: Cartography Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively and behavioral psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said without much controversy that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field. Geographic information systems Main article: Geographic information system Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent analyze and predict spatial relationships. In this context GIS stands for Geographic Information Science. Remote sensing Main article: Remote sensing Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many forms such as satellite imagery aerial photography and data obtained from hand-held sensors. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's land surface ocean and atmosphere because it: a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global) b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest c) allows access to distant and/or inaccessible sites d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed either independently of or in conjunction with other digital data layers (e.g. in a Geographic Information System). Quantitative methods Main article: Geostatistics Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including: hydrology geology petroleum exploration weather analysis urban planning logistics and epidemiology. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis linear discriminant analysis and non-parametric statistical tests and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on geographic information systems particularly for the interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques. Qualitative methods Main article: Ethnography Geographic qualitative methods or ethnographical; research techniques are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques also used in anthropology and sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data. History Main article: History of geography Geography History of geography Graeco-Roman Chinese Islamic Age of Discovery History of cartography Environmental determinism Regional geography Quantitative revolution Critical geography The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.10 The best known Babylonian world map however is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.11 The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria Urartu12 and several cities in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus) with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.13 In contrast to the Imago Mundi an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.10 The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610 BC-c. 545 BC) considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomonthe simple yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales Anaximander is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures such as the ancient medieval and early modern Chinese. The Greeks who were the first to explore geography as both art and science achieved this through Cartography Philosophy and Literature or through Mathematics. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses. However he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.14 The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to Hipparchus. He employed a sexagesimal system that was derived from Babylonian mathematics. The parallels and meridians were sub-divided into 360 with each degree further subdivided 60 (minutes). To measure the longitude at different location on Earth he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.15 The extensive mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases. He extended the work of Hipparchus using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.16 From the 3rd century onwards Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more complex than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century).17 Chinese geographers such as Liu An Pei Xiu Jia Dan Shen Kuo Fan Chengda Zhou Daguan and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China. During the Middle Ages the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.17 Muslim geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi produced detailed world maps (such as Tabula Rogeriana) while other geographers such as Yaqut al-Hamawi Abu Rayhan Biruni Ibn Battuta and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish geographer Mahmud al-Kashgari drew a world map on a linguistic basis and later so did Piri Reis (Piri Reis map). Further Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.18 Ab Zayd al-Balkh originally from Balkh founded the "Balkh school" of terrestrial mapping in Baghdad.19 Suhrb a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates with instructions for making a rectangular world map with equirectangular projection or cylindrical equidistant projection.19 Abu Rayhan Biruni (976-1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.20verification needed He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them which he did for many cities in the Middle East and Indian subcontinent. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains depths of valleys and expanse of the horizon. He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth. He also calculated the latitude of Kath Khwarezm using the maximum altitude of the Sun and solved a complex geodesic equation in order to accurately compute the Earth's circumference which were close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.21 His estimate of 6339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations al-Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.22verification needed Self portrait of Alexander von Humboldt one of the early pioneers of geography The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and 17th centuries where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus Marco Polo and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. The problem of latitude was solved long ago but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridian should be was only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760 and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian as zero meridian.23 The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century with the foundations of the Socit de Gographie in 182124 the Royal Geographical Society in 183025 Russian Geographical Society in 184526 American Geographical Society in 185127 and the National Geographic Society in 1888.28 The influence of Immanuel Kant Alexander von Humboldt Carl Ritter and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning point in geography from a philosophy to an academic subject. Over the past two centuries the advancements in technology such as computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism regional geography the quantitative revolution and critical geography. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany as well as economics sociology and demographics have also grown greatly especially as a result of Earth System Science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view. Notable geographers Main article: List of geographers The Geographer by Johannes Vermeer Eratosthenes (276BC - 194BC) - calculated the size of the Earth. Ptolemy (c.90c.168) - compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia. Al Idrisi (Arabic: ; Latin: Dreses) (11001165/66) - author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq. Gerardus Mercator (15121594) - innovative cartographer produced the mercator projection Alexander von Humboldt (17691859) - Considered Father of modern geography published the Kosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography. Carl Ritter (17791859) - Considered Father of modern geography. Occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University. Arnold Henry Guyot (18071884) - noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion especially in fast ice flow. William Morris Davis (18501934) - father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion. Paul Vidal de la Blache (18451918) - founder of the French school of geopolitics and wrote the principles of human geography. Sir Halford John Mackinder (18611947) - Co-founder of the LSE Geographical Association Carl O. Sauer (18891975) - Prominent cultural geographer Walter Christaller (18931969) - human geographer and inventor of Central place theory. Yi-Fu Tuan (1930-) - Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline. David Harvey (1935-) - Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize. Edward Soja (born 1941) - Noted for his work on regional development planning and governance along with coining the terms Synekism and Postmetropolis. Michael Frank Goodchild (1944-) - prominent GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003. Doreen Massey (1944-) - Key scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize. Nigel Thrift (1949-) - originator of non-representational theory. Ellen Churchill Semple (18631932) - She was America's first influential female geographer. Institutions and societies Anton Melik Geographical Institute (Slovenia) National Geographic Society (U.S.) American Geographical Society (U.S.) National Geographic Bee (U.S.) Royal Canadian Geographical Society (Canada) Royal Geographical Society (UK) Publications African Geographical Review Geographical Review See also Geography portal Atlas portal Book: Geography Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Main articles: Outline of geography and Index of geography articles Association of American Geographers Canadian Association of Geographers Gazetteer Geographer Geographical renaming Geography and places reference tables International Geographical Union Landform List of explorers List of geographers List of Russian explorers Map Navigator Philosophy of geography World map Notes and references "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. http://www.etymonline.com/index.phptermgeography. Retrieved 2009-04-17.  "Geography". The American Heritage Dictionary/ of the English Language Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/geography. Retrieved October 9 2006.  Pattison W.D. (1990). "The Four Traditions of Geography". Journal of Geography 89 (5): 2026. doi:10.1080/00221349008979196. ISSN 0022-1341. http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/kclarke/G200B/four20traditions20of20geography.pdf.  Reprint of a 1964 article. Bonnett Alastair What is Geography London Sage 2008 http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/morgans/lecture2.prn.pdf "1(b). Elements of Geography". Physicalgeography.net. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/1b.html. Retrieved 2009-04-17.  a b Hayes-Bohanan James. "What is Environmental Geography Anyway". http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/environmentalgeography.htm. Retrieved October 9 2006.  Hughes William. (1863). The Study of Geography. Lecture delivered at King's College London by Sir Marc Alexander. Quoted in Baker J.N.L (1963). The History of Geography. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. pp. 66. ISBN 0853280223.  "What is geography". AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences. Association of American Geographers. Archived from the original on October 6 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061006152742/http://www.aag.org/Careers/Whatisgeog.html. Retrieved October 9 2006.  a b Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert (2009). Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 147. ISBN 1405191465  Siebold Jim Slide 103 via henry-davis.com - accessed 2008-02-04 http://www.jstor.org/pss/1151277 IMAGO MVNDI Vol.48 pp.209 Finel Irving (1995). A join to the map of the world: A notable discover. pp. 2627.  Jean-Louis and Monique Tassoul (1920). A Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics. London: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069111711X.  "Hipparcos of Rhodes". Technology Museum of Thessaloniki. 2001. http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/HotTopics/index.php/archives/147-Names-for-the-Columbia-astronauts-provisionally-approved.html. Retrieved 2006-10-16.  Sullivan Dan (2000). "Mapmaking and its History". Rutgers University. http://www.math.rutgers.edu/cherlin/History/Papers2000/sullivan.html. Retrieved 2006-10-16.  a b Needham Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Page 512. "Education". IslamiCity.com. http://www.islamicity.com/education/ihame/default.aspDestination/education/ihame/20.asp. Retrieved 2009-04-17.  a b E. Edson and Emilie Savage-Smith Medieval Views of the Cosmos pp. 61-3 Bodleian Library University of Oxford David A. King (1996) "Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla gnomics and timekeeping" in Roshdi Rashed ed. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science Vol. 1 p. 128-184 153. Routledge London and New York. James S. Aber (2003). Alberuni calculated the Earth's circumference at a small town of Pind Dadan Khan District Jhelum Punjab Pakistan.Abu Rayhan al-Biruni Emporia State University. Lenn Evan Goodman (1992) Avicenna p. 31 Routledge ISBN 041501929X. Aughton Peter (2007). Voyages that changed the world. Quercus. p. 164. ISBN 1847240040. http://books.google.com/idbz4GyOioMF4C&pgRA1-PA164&dqVoyages+that+changed+the+world+H-4&cd1#vonepage&q.  "Socit de Gographie Paris France" (in French). http://www.socgeo.org/index.html. Retrieved 2007-01-15.  "About Us". Royal Geographical Society. http://www.rgs.org/AboutUs/about+us.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-15.  " ( 1845 .)". Rgo.org.ru. http://www.rgo.org.ru/. Retrieved 2009-04-17.  "The American Geographical Society". Amergeog.org. 2009-04-02. http://www.amergeog.org/. Retrieved 2009-04-17.  "Inspiring People to Care About the Planet". National Geographic. 2002-10-17. http://www.nationalgeographic.com/index.html. Retrieved 2009-04-17.  External links Find more about Geography on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks v d eGeography History  Index/Outline   Portal Branches Physical Biogeography  Climatology  Coastal  Environmental  Geodesy  Geomorphology  Glaciology  Hydrology  Landscape ecology  Limnology  Oceanography  Palaeogeography  Pedology  Quaternary science Human Behavioral  Cultural  Demography  Development  Economic  Feminist  Health  Historical  Political  Regional  Urban Techniques and tools Cartography  Geographic Information Systems (GIS)  Geostatistics  Global Positioning System (GPS)  Remote sensing  Spatial analysis  Qualitative research Societies American Geographical Society  Association of American Geographers  European Geography Association  Geographical Association  Hong Kong Geographical Association  International Geographical Union  National Geographic Society  Royal Canadian Geographical Society  Royal Geographical Society  Royal Scottish Geographical Society  Russian Geographical Society  Saudi Geographical Society  Socit de Gographie  Society of Woman Geographers Geographers Ptolemy  Gerardus Mercator  Carl Ritter  Alexander Von Humboldt  Alfred Russel Wallace  Richard Chorley