This article is about the unified German monarchy existing from 1871 to 1918. For Germany before 1806 see Holy Roman Empire. For Germany between 1918 and 1933 see Weimar Republic. For Germany between 1933 and 1945 see Nazi Germany. For German colonial territories see German colonial empire. Deutsches Reich1 German Empire 18711918 Flag Imperial Coat of arms Motto Gott mit uns "God with us" Anthem (none official) "Heil dir im Siegerkranz" (Imperial) "Deutschlandlied" (popular) "Die Wacht am Rhein" (Unofficial) Territory of the German Empire in 1914 prior to World War I Capital Berlin Language(s) Official language: German Unofficial minority languages: Danish French Yiddish Sorbian Polish Frisian Lithuanian Colonial languages: Bantu Oshiwambo Afrikaans Swahili (African Colonies) Chinese (Tsingtao & Jiaozhou bay) Papuan languages (German New Guinea) Samoan (German Samoa) Religion Protestant60% Roman Catholic40% Jewish1% Government Federal monarchy Emperor  - 18711888 William I  - 1888 Frederick III  - 18881918 William II Chancellor  - 18711890 Otto von Bismarck (first)  - 89 November 1918 Friedrich Ebert (last) Legislature Reichstag  - State council Reichsrat Historical era New Imperialism/WWI  - Unification 18 January 1871  - Republic declared 9 November 1918  - Formal abdication 28 November 1918 Area  - 1910 540857.54 km2 (208826 sq mi) Population  - 1871 est. 41058792   - 1890 est. 49428470   - 1910 est. 64925993       Density 120 /km2  (310.9 /sq mi) Currency Vereinsthaler South German gulden Bremen thaler Hamburg mark French franc (until 1873 together) Goldmark (18731914) Papiermark (after 1914) Preceded by Succeeded by Kingdom of Prussia North German Confederation Kingdom of Bavaria Kingdom of Wrttemberg Grand Duchy of Baden Grand Duchy of Hesse Alsace-Lorraine Weimar Republic Republic of Alsace-Lorraine Free City of Danzig Second Polish Republic Klaipda Region Saar (League of Nations) Hlun Region Northern Schleswig Eupen-Malmedy Today part of  Belgium  Czech Republic  Denmark  France  Germany  Lithuania  Poland  Russia Area and population not including colonial possessions Area source:2 Population source:3

The German Empire (German: Deutsches Reich1 but also the called Kaiserlich Deutsches Reich or Kaiserreich by some German historians) refers to Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of William I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918 when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor William II.

The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Reich; the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders and Prussia itself played a lesser role.citation needed The three large neighbors were Imperial Russia in the east France in the west both rivals and Austria-Hungary in the south an ally.

After 1850 Germany industrialized rapidly with a foundation in coal iron (and later steel) chemicals and railways. From a population of 41 million people in 1871 it grew to 68 million in 1913. From a heavily rural nation in 1815 it was now predominantly urban.4 During its 47 years of existence the German Empire operated as an industrial technological and scientific giant receiving more Nobel Prizes in science than Britain France Russia and the United States combined.5

It was a great power with the most powerful army in the world and its navy went from negligible to being second only to the British Empire in less than a decade. After the removal of the powerful Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890 following the death of Emperor William I the young Emperor Wilhelm II engaged in increasingly reckless foreign policies that left the Empire isolated. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived it had only two weak allies (Austria and Turkey) left. It defeated Russia carving out large Eastern territories in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and could hold off France and Britain but when the United States entered the war in 1917 the high command gambled on one last offensive in spring 1918 (before the American arrived in force) which failed. The Great War ruined the economy and dissolved faith in the authoritarian political system. The army could no longer hold off the Allied attacks and the Empire collapsed overnight in November 1918 Revolution and was subsequently destroyed in the Versailles treaty. Contents 1 Bismarck's founding of the Empire 1.1 Industrial power 2 Constituent states of the Empire 3 Linguistic minorities in the German Empire 4 Bismarck era 4.1 Foreign policy 4.1.1 Colonies 4.2 Economy 4.2.1 Railways 4.2.2 Industry 4.3 Ideology 4.3.1 Kulturkampf 4.3.2 Social reform 4.3.2.1 Germanisation 4.3.3 Anti-Semitism 4.4 Law 5 Year of three emperors 6 Wilhelmine era 6.1 Relegitimization of the throne and Bismarck's resignation 6.2 Domestic affairs 6.3 Foreign affairs 6.4 Middle East 6.5 Eastern Europe 7 World War I 7.1 Origins 7.2 Western Front 7.3 Eastern Front 7.4 Colonies 7.5 1918 7.6 Home front 7.7 Revolt 8 Legacy 8.1 Sonderweg 9 Territorial legacy 10 Claims to continued existence 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Bismarck's founding of the Empire Main article: Unification of Germany

German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 called Pan-Germanism to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck's pragmatic Realpolitik. Bismarck sought to extend Hohenzollern hegemony throughout the German states; to do so meant unification of the German states and the elimination of Prussia's rival Austria from the subsequent empire. He envisioned a conservative Prussian-dominated Germany.

Three wars led to military successes and helped to persuade German people to do this: the Second war of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864 the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War known as the German-French War in Germany against France in 187071. During the Siege of Paris in 1871 the northern German states supported by its German allies from outside of the confederation (excluding Austria) formed the German Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian king Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.

Bismarck himself prepared a broad outlinethe 1866 North German Constitution which became the 1871 German Constitution with some adjustments. Germany acquired some democratic features. The new empire had a parliament with two houses. The lower house or Reichstag was elected by universal male suffrage. However the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas. As a result by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and first decade of the 20th century rural areas were grossly overrepresented.

Legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat the federal council of deputies from the states. Executive power was vested in the emperor or Kaiser (Caesar) who was assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. The emperor was given extensive powers by the constitution. He alone appointed and dismissed the chancellor was supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces and final arbiter of all foreign affairs. Officially the chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice the State Secretaries (bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance war foreign affairs etc.) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. The Reichstag had the power to pass amend or reject bills and to initiate legislation.

Although nominally a league of equals in practice the empire was dominated by the largest and most powerful state Prussia. It stretched across the northern of the new Reich and contained 35 of its population. The imperial crown was hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern the ruling house of Prussia. With the exception of the years 18721873 and 18921894 the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia. With 17 out of 58 votes in the Bundesrat Berlin needed only a few votes from the small states to exercise effective control. The other states retained their own governments but had only limited aspects of sovereignty. For example both postage stamps and currency were issued for the empire as a whole. Coins through one mark was also minted in the name of the empire while higher valued pieces were issued by the states. But these larger gold and silver issues were virtually commemorative coins and had limited circulation. Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches by Anton von Werner (1877) depicting the proclamation of the foundation of the German Reich (18 January 1871 Palace of Versailles). Left on the podium (in black): Crown Prince Frederick (later Frederick III) his father Emperor William I and Frederick I of Baden proposing a toast to the new emperor. Centre (in white): Otto von Bismarck first Chancellor of Germany Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Prussian Chief of Staff. While the states issued their own decorations and some had their own armies the military forces of the smaller ones were put under Prussian control. Those of the larger states such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony were coordinated along Prussian principles and would in wartime be controlled by the federal government. The evolution of the German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy which became a united nation state shortly before the German Empire. Some key elements of the German Empire's authoritarian political structure were also the basis for conservative modernization in Imperial Japan under Meiji and the preservation of an authoritarian political structure under the Tsars in the Russian Empire. One factor in the social anatomy of these governments had been the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite the Junkers resulting from the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas. Although authoritarian in many respects the empire permitted the development of political parties. Bismarck's intention was to create a constitutional faade which would mask the continuation of authoritarian policies. In the process he created a system with a serious flaw. There was a significant disparity between the Prussian and German electoral systems. Prussia used a highly restrictive three-class voting system in which the richest third of the population could choose 85% of the legislature all but assuring a conservative majority. As mentioned above the king and (with two exceptions) the prime minister of Prussia were also the emperor and chancellor of the empire meaning that the same rulers had to seek majorities from legislatures elected from completely different franchises. Industrial power In 30 years Germany had replaced Britain as Europe's leading industrial power though it fell behind the United States. Representative of its industrial was the steel giant Krupp whose first factory was built in Essen. By 1902 the factory alone had become "A great city with its own streets its own police force fire department and traffic laws. There are 150 kilometres of rail 60 different factory buildings 8500 machine tools seven electrical stations 140 kilometres of underground cable and 46 overhead."6 Under Bismarck Germany was a world innovator in building the welfare state. German workers enjoyed sickness accident and maternity benefits canteens changing rooms and a national pension scheme.citation needed Constituent states of the Empire See also: Historic states of Germany Member states of the German Empire (Prussia shown in blue). The German colonial empire in 1914 Before unification German territory was made up of 27 constituent states. These states consisted of kingdoms grand duchies duchies principalities free Hanseatic cities and one imperial territory. The Kingdom of Prussia was the largest of the constituent states covering some 60% of the territory of the German Empire. Several of these states had gained sovereignty following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Others were created as sovereign states after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Territories were not necessarily contiguous many existed in several parts as a result of historical acquisition or in several cases divisions of the ruling family trees. The constituent Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg then ruled in personal union by the Prussian king merged with Prussia in real union in 1876. Each component of the German Empire sent representatives to the Imperial Council (Bundesrat) and the Imperial Diet (Reichstag). Relations between the Imperial centre and the Empire's components were somewhat fluid and were developed on an ongoing basis. The extent to which the German Emperor could for example intervene on occasions of disputed or unclear succession was much debated on occasion for example with the Lippe-Detmold inheritance crisis. State Capital Kingdoms (Knigreiche) Prussia (Preuen) Berlin Bavaria (Bayern) Munich Saxony (Sachsen) Dresden Wrttemberg Stuttgart Grand duchies (Groherzogtmer) Baden Karlsruhe Hesse (Hessen) Darmstadt Mecklenburg-Schwerin Schwerin Mecklenburg-Strelitz Neustrelitz Oldenburg Oldenburg Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach) Weimar Duchies (Herzogtmer) Anhalt Dessau Brunswick (Braunschweig) Braunschweig Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg) Altenburg Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha) Coburg Saxe-Meiningen (Sachsen-Meiningen) Meiningen Principalities (Frstentmer) Lippe Detmold Reuss junior line Gera Reuss senior line Greiz Schaumburg-Lippe Bckeburg Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Rudolstadt Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Sondershausen Waldeck-Pyrmont Arolsen Free Hanseatic cities (Freie Hansestdte) Bremen Hamburg Lbeck Imperial territory (Reichsland) Alsace-Lorraine (Elsa-Lothringen) Straburg Kingdom of Prussia Kingdom of Bavaria Kingdom of Saxony Kingdom of Wrttemberg Linguistic minorities in the German Empire Percentage of linguistic minorities of the German Empire in 1900 by Kreis Because of the multicultural and multilingual history of Central Europe the population of the German Empire consisted of people with different native languages. However 92.5% of the population had German as their first language a figure significantly higher than other big countries of the time (Britain France Russia)citation needed. The only minority language with a significant number of speakers was Polish the native language of 5.45% of the imperial citizens. The other minority languages were spoken regionally. The non-German Germanic languages language group (0.5%) like Danish Dutch and Frisian were located in the north and northwest of the empire. Plattdeutsch called Low German in English is spoken throughout northern Germany and though linguistically as separate from High German (Hochdeutsch) as from Dutch and English is considered "German" hence also its name. Danish and Frisian were spoken predominantly in the north of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein and Dutch in the western border areas of the Prussian provinces of Hanover Westphalia and the Rhine Province. The Slavic languages (6.28%) like Polish Masurian Kashubian Sorbian and Czech were located in the east; Polish mainly in the Prussian provinces of Posen West Prussia and Silesia (Upper Silesia). Small islands also existed in Recklinghausen (Westphalia) with 13.8% of the population) and in the Kreis of Kalau (Brandenburg) (5.5%) and in parts of East Prussia and Pomerania. Czech was spoken predominantly in the south of the Silesia Masurian in the south of East Prussia Kashubian in the north of West Prussia and Sorbian in the Lusatian regions of Prussia (Brandenburg and Silesia) and the Kingdom of Saxony. Romanic languages (0.52%) were located only at the western border of the German Empire. The largest group was the French- speaking community near the border to France in the Reichsland Elsa-Lothringen where it formed 11.6% of the total population. Here also existed the Italian-speaking minority which encompased 9.5% of the population in the Kreis of Diedenhofen (migrants working in the steel industry). The Walloons made up to 28.7% in the Kreis of Malmedy (Rhine Province). The Baltic language group are the smallest and only consists of Lithuanian-speaking people (0.19%) in the northeast of the Prussian provinces of East Prussia. Native languages of the citizens of the German Empire (12.01.1900) 7 Language Count Percentage German 51883131 92.05 German and a foreign language 252918 0.45 Polish 3086489 5.48 French 211679 0.38 Masurian 142049 0.25 Danish 141061 0.25 Lithuanian 106305 0.19 Kashubian 100213 0.18 Wendish (Sorbian) 93032 0.16 Dutch 80361 0.14 Italian 65930 0.12 Moravian 64382 0.11 Czech 43016 0.08 Frisian 20677 0.04 English 20217 0.04 Russian 9617 0.02 Swedish 8998 0.02 Hungarian 8158 0.01 Spanish 2059 0.00 Portuguese 479 0.00 Other foreign languages 14535 0.03 Imperial citizens on December 1. 1900 56367187 100 Danish Dutch Frisian Polish Czech (and Moravian) Masurian Kashubian Sorbian French Walloon Italian Lithuanian non-German Bismarck era History of Germany This article is part of a series Early History Germanic peoples Names of Germany Frankish Empire Medieval Germany East Francia Kingdom of Germany Holy Roman Empire Eastward settlement Early Modern period Sectionalism 18th century Kingdom of Prussia Unification of Germany Confederation of the Rhine German Confederation & Zollverein German Revolutions of 1848 North German Confederation The German Reich German Empire World War I Weimar Republic Saar Danzig Memel Austria Sudeten Nazi Germany World War II Flensburg Government Germany since 1945 Occupation + Ostgebiete Expulsion of Germans West Germany East Germany and Saar German reunification reunified Germany Topics Economic history of Germany Military history of Germany Territorial changes of Germany Timeline of German history History of Berlin Germany Portal v d e Otto von Bismarck Bismarck's domestic policies played a great role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the Kaiserreich. Less preoccupied by continental power politics following unification in 1871 Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time. Foreign policy Bismarck's post-1871 foreign policy was conservative and sought to preserve the balance of power in Europe. His biggest concern was France which was left defeated and resentful after the Franco-Prussian War. As the French lacked the strength to defeat Germany by themselves they sought an alliance with Russia which would trap Germany between the two in a war (as would ultimately happen in 1914). Bismarck wanted to prevent this at all costs and maintain friendly relations with the Russians and thereby formed an alliance with them and Austria-Hungary (which by the 1880s was being slowly reduced to a German satellite) the Dreikaiserbund (League of Three Emperors). During this period individuals within the German military were advocating a preemptive strike against Russia but Bismarck knew that such ideas were foolhardy. He once wrote that "the most brilliant victories would not avail against the Russian nation because of its climate its desert and its frugality and having but one frontier to defend" and because it would leave Germany with another bitter resentful neighbor. Bismarck once contrasted his nation's foreign policy difficulties with the easy situation of the U.S. (the only strong power in the Western Hemisphere) saying "The Americans are a very lucky people. They're bordered to the north and south by weak neighbors and to the east and west by fish." Meanwhile the chancellor remained wary of any foreign policy developments that looked even remotely warlike. In 1886 he moved to stop an attempted sale of horses to France on the grounds that they might be used for cavalry and also ordered an investigation into large Russian purchases of medicine from a German chemical works. Bismarck stubbornly refused to listen to Georg Herbert zu Munster (ambassador to France) who reported back that the French were not seeking a revanchist war and in fact were desperate for peace at all costs. Bismarck and most of his contemporaries were conservative-minded and focused their foreign policy attention on Germany's neighboring states. In 1914 60% of German foreign investment was in Europe as opposed to just 5% of British investment. Most of the money went to developing nations such as Russia that lacked the capital or technical knowledge to industrialize on their own. The construction of the Baghdad Railway financed by German banks was designed to eventually connect Germany with the Turkish Empire and the Persian Gulf but it also collided with British and Russian geopolitical interests. Colonies Main article: German colonial empire A postage stamp from the Carolines Bismarck secured a number of German colonial possessions during the 1880s in Africa and the Pacific but he never saw much value in an overseas colonial empire; Germany's colonies remained badly undeveloped. However they excited the interest of the religious-minded who supported an extensive network of missionaries. Germans had dreamed of colonial imperialism since 1848.8 Bismark began the process and by 1884 had acquired German New Guinea.9 By the 1890s German colonial expansion in Asia and the Pacific (Kiauchau in China the Marianas the Caroline Islands Samoa) led to frictions with Britain Russia Japan and the U.S. The largest colonial enterprises were in Africa10 where the harsh treatment of the Nama and Herero in what is now Namibia in 190607 led to charges of genocide against the Germans.11 Economy Railways Lacking a technological base at first the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training so that by 1850 Germany was self sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. However German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation nationalisation into state-owned companies and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France the goal was support of industrialisation and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880 Germany had 9400 locomotives pulling 43000 passengers and 30000 tons of freight and forged ahead of France12 Krupp Works in Essen 1890 Industry Industrialization progressed dynamically in Germany and German manufacturers began to capture domestic markets from British imports and also to compete with British industry abroad particularly in the U.S. The German textiles and metal industries had by 1870 surpassed those of Britain in organization and technical efficiency and usurped British manufacturers in the domestic market. Germany became the dominant economic power on the continent and was the second largest exporting nation after Britain. Technological progress during German industrialization occurred in four waves: the railway wave (187786) the dye wave (188796) the chemical wave (18971902) and the wave of electrical engineering (190318).13 Since Germany industrialized later than Britain it was able to model its factories after those of Britain thus making more efficient use of its capital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology. Germany invested more heavily than the British in research especially in the chemistry motors and electricity. Imperial Germany dominated in physics and chemistry so that one-third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers. The German cartel system (known as Konzerne) being significantly concentrated was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871 it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.14 By 1900 the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes.15 The three major firms BASF16 Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes along with the five smaller firms. In 1913 these eight firms produced almost 90% of the world supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80% of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals photographic film agricultural chemicals and electrochemicals. Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers; leading Chandler to call the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises".17 There were many spinoffs from researchsuch as the pharmaceutical industry which emerged from chemical research.18 By the start of World War I (19141918) German industry switched to war production. The heaviest demands were on coal and steel for artillery and shell production and on chemicals for the synthetization of materials that were subject to import restrictions and for chemical weapons and war supplies. Ideology After achieving formal unification in 1871 Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity under the ideology of Prussianism. Conservative Catholic activism and emancipation conceptualized by the conservative turn of the Vatican under Pope Pius IX and its dogma of Papal Infallibility and working class radicalism represented by the emerging Social Democratic Party in many ways both reacted to concerns of dislocation by very different segments of German society brought by a rapid shift from an agrarian-based economy to modern industrial capitalism under nationalist tutelage. While out-and-out suppression failed to contain either socialists or Catholics Bismarck's "carrot and stick" approach significantly mollified opposition from both groups. The creation of the Empire under Prussian leadership was a victory for the concept of Kleindeutschland (Smaller Germany) over the Grodeutschland concept. This meant that Austria a multi-ethnic Empire with a considerable German-speaking population would remain outside of the German nationstate. Bismarck's policy was to support this solution diplomatically. The effective alliance between Germany and Austria played a major role in Germany's decision to enter World War I in 1914. Bismarck announced there would be no more territorial additions to Germany in Europe and his diplomacy after 1871 was focused on stabilizing the European system and prevent any wars. He succeeded and only after his ouster in 1890 did the diplomatic tensions start rising again.19 Kulturkampf Main article: Kulturkampf Prussia in 1871 included 16000000 Protestants both Reformed and Lutheran and 8000000 Catholics. Most people were generally segregated into their own religious worlds living in rural districts or city neighborhoods that were overwhelmingly of the same religion and sending their children to separate public schools where their religion was taught. There was little interaction or intermarriage. On the whole the Protestants had a higher social status and the Catholics were more likely to be peasant farmers or unskilled or semiskilled industrial workers. In 1870 the Catholics formed their own political party the Centre Party which generally supported unification and most of Bismarck's policies. However Bismarck a devout pietistic Protestant distrusted parliamentary democracy in general and opposition parties in particular especially when the Centre Party showed signs of gaining support among dissident elements such as the Polish Catholics in Silesia. A powerful intellectual force of the time was anti-Catholicism led by the liberal intellectuals who formed a vital part of Bismarck's coalition. They saw the Catholic Church as a powerful force of reaction and anti-modernity especially after the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870 and the tightening control of the Vatican over the local bishops.20 The Kulturkampf launched by Bismarck 18711880 affected Prussia; although there were similar movements in Baden and Hesse the rest of Germany was not affected. According to the new imperial constitution the states were in charge of religious and educational affairs; they funded the Protestant and Catholic schools. In July 1871 Bismarck abolished the Catholic section of the Prussian Ministry of ecclesiastical and educational affairs depriving Catholics of their voice at the highest level. The system of strict government supervision of schools was applied only in Catholic areas; the Protestant schools were left alone.21 Much more serious were the May laws of 1873. One made the appointment of any priest dependent on his attendance at a German university as opposed to the seminaries that the Catholics typically used. Furthermore all candidates for the ministry had to pass an examination in German culture before a state board which weeded out intransigent Catholics. Another provision gave the government a veto power over most church activities. A second law abolished the jurisdiction of the Vatican over the Catholic Church in Prussia; its authority was transferred to a government body controlled by Protestants.22 Nearly all German bishops clergy and laymen rejected the legality of the new laws and were defiant in the face of heavier and heavier penalties and imprisonments imposed by Bismarck's government by 1876 all the Prussian bishops were imprisoned or in exile and a third of the Catholic parishes were without a priest. In the face of systematic defiance the Bismarck government increased the penalties and its attacks and were challenged in 1875 when a papal encyclical declared the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Prussia was invalid and threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who obeyed. There was no violence but the Catholics mobilized their support set up numerous civic organizations raised money to pay fines and rallied behind their church and the Centre Party. The government had set up a "Old-Catholic Church" which attracted only a few thousand members. Bismarck realized his Kulturkampf was a failure when secular and socialist elements use the opportunity to attack all religion. In the long run the most significant result was the mobilization of the Catholic voters and their insistence on protecting their church. In the elections of 1874 the Centre party doubled its popular vote and became the second-largest party in the national parliamentand remained a powerful force for the next 60 years so that after Bismarck it became difficult to form a government without their support.2324 Social reform Bismark built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s. In the 1880s he introduced old age pensions accident insurance medical care and unemployment insurance that formed the basis of the modern European welfare state. He came to realize that this sort of policy was very appealing since it bound workers to the state and also fit in very well with his authoritarian nature. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883 accident insurance in 1884 invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and to a degree still exist in Germany today. Bismarck's paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.25 Bismarck further won the support of both industry and skilled workers by his high tariff policies which protected profits and wages from American competition although they alienated the liberal intellectuals who wanted free trade.26 Germanisation One of the effects of the unification policies was the gradually increasing tendency to eliminate the use of non-German languages in public life schools and academic settings with the intent of pressuring the non-German population to abandon their national identity in what was called "Germanization". These policies had often the reverse effect of stimulating resistance usually in the form of home schooling and tighter unity in the minority groups especially the Poles.27 The Germanization policies were targeted particularly against the significant Polish minority of the empire gained by Prussia in the Partitions of Poland. Poles were treated as a ethnic minority even where they made up the majority as in the Province of Posen where a series of anti-Polish measures were enforced.28 Numerous anti-Polish laws had no great effect especially in the province of Posen where the German-speaking population dropped from 42.8% in 1871 to 38.1% in 1905 despite all efforts.29 Anti-Semitism Anti-Semitism was an endemic problem in Germany. Before Napoleon's decrees ended the ghettos in Germany it had been religiously-motivated but by the 19th century it was a factor in German nationalism. The last legal barriers on Jews in Prussia were lifted by the 1860s and within 20 years they were well represented in the white-collar professions and much of academia. Despite the often crude anti-Semitism of German elites such as Bismarck many of them utilized the services of Jews such as Bismarck's banker Gerson Bleichroder (18221893).30 In the popular mind Jews became a symbol of capitalism and modernity two things that were resented by the Prussian aristocracy who were finding their power and prestige rapidly diminished in the new unified Germany. On the other hand the constitution and legal system protected the rights of Jews as German citizens. Anti-Semitic parties were formed but soon collapsed.31 Law Bismarck's efforts also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states which had been independent in their evolution for centuries especially with legislation. The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications especially for national trade. While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and with great modifications is still in effect today) there was little similarity in laws otherwise. In 1871 a common Criminal Code (Reichsstrafgesetzbuch) was introduced; in 1877 common court procedures were established in the court system (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz) civil procedures (Zivilprozessordnung) and criminal procedures (Strafprozessordnung). In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (If they existed at all; for example parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code while in Prussia the Allgemeines Preuisches Landrecht of 1794 was still in effect). In 1881 a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire an enormous effort that would produce the Brgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB) possibly one of the most impressive legal works of the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900. It speaks volumes for the conceptual quality of these codifications that they all albeit with many amendments are still in effect today. Year of three emperors Frederick III emperor for only 99 days (9 March  15 June 1888). Main article: Year of Three Emperors On 9 March 1888 Wilhelm I died shortly before his 91st birthday leaving his son Frederick III as the new emperor. Frederick was a liberal and an admirer of the British constitution32 while his links to Britain strengthened further with his marriage to Princess Victoria eldest child of Queen Victoria. With his ascent to the throne many hoped that Frederick's reign would lead to a liberalisation of the Reich and an increase of parliament's influence on the political process. The dismissal of Robert von Puttkamer the highly-conservative Prussian interior minister on 8 June was a sign of the expected direction and a blow to Bismarck's administration. By the time of his accession however Frederick had developed incurable laryngeal cancer which had been diagnosed the previous year on 12 November 1887 by the British doctor Morell Mackenzie.33 Frederick died on the 99th day of his rule on 15 June 1888. The death of Frederick III led to the accession of his son Wilhelm II as emperor. Due to the rapid succession of these three monarchs 1888 is known as the Year of Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserjahr). Wilhelmine era Relegitimization of the throne and Bismarck's resignation Wilhelm II German Emperor. Oil painting by Max Koner 1890. Wilhelm II intended to relegitimize the importance of the imperial throne at a time when other monarchies in Europe were being subordinated into figurehead positions. This decision led the ambitious Kaiser into conflict with Bismarck. The old chancellor had hoped to control Wilhelm as he had controlled his grandfather but the emperor wanted to be the master in his own house and had numerous sycophants telling him that Frederick the Great would not have been great with a Bismarck at his side.34 A major difference between Wilhelm II and Bismarck was their approaches to handling political crises especially in 1889 when German coal miners went on strike in Upper Silesia. Bismarck demanded that the German Army be sent in to crush the strike but Wilhelm II rejected this authoritarian measure responding "I do not wish to stain my reign with the blood of my subjects."35 Instead of repression being used Wilhelm had the government proceed with negotiations with a delegation sent from the coal miners which resulted in the strike coming to an end without violence.34 The fractious relationship ended after Wilhelm II and Bismarck had a dispute and the latter resigned days later in March 1890.34 Bismarck's last few years saw power slip from his hands as he grew older more irritable authoritarian and less focused. German politics had become progressively more chaotic and the chancellor understood this better than anyone. Bismarck unlike Wilhelm II's generation knew well that an ungovernable country with an adventurous foreign policy was a recipe for disaster. After his retirement he remarked "20 years after I'm gone it will all be over."citation needed (It was 20 years and one month from his death in October 1898 to the end of the German Empire in November 1918). With the departure of Bismarck as chancellor Wilhelm II became the dominant leader of Germany. Unlike his grandfather Wilhelm I who was satisfied with leaving government affairs to the chancellor Wilhelm II wanted to be active in the affairs of Germany and wanted to be a knowledgeable leader not an ornamental figurehead although most Germans found amusing his claims of divine right to rule.36 Wilhelm voluntarily received economics tutoring from politician Walther Rathenau. From Rathenau Wilhelm learned about European economics and industrial and financial realities in Europe.36 In official appearances and photographs Wilhelm II tried with some success to conceal his withered left arm which he had due to Erb's Palsy since his traumatic breech birth. Wilhelm would become internationally known for his aggressive foreign policy positionscitation needed and strategic blunders (Tangier Crisis for example) which pushed the German Empire into political isolation and later into World War I. Domestic affairs The Reichstag in the 1890s / early 1900s. Under Wilhelm II Germany no longer had long-ruling strong chancellors like Bismarck. The new chancellors had difficulty in performing their roles especially their additional role as Prime Minister of Prussia that was assigned to them in the German Constitution. Reforms made by Chancellor Caprivi involving trade liberalization which brought about a reduction in unemployment were supported by the Kaiser and many Germans except for Prussian landowners who feared loss of land and power and set up a number of anti-Caprivi campaigns against the reforms.37 While Prussian aristocrats challenged the demands of a united German state in the 1890s a number of rebellious organizations were set up to challenge the authoritarian conservative Prussian militarism which was instilled on the country. Some educators acted in opposition of the German state-run schools which taught military education and set up their own independent liberal-minded schools which encouraged individuality and freedom.38 Nevertheless the schools in Imperial Germany had a very high standard and dealt with modern developments.39 Artists began experimental art in opposition to Kaiser Wilhelm's demands for traditional art in which Wilhelm responded "art which transgresses the laws and limits laid down by me can no longer be called art ...."40 It was largely thanks to Wilhelm's influence that most printed material in Germany used blackletter instead of the Roman type used in the rest of Western Europe. At the same time a new generation of cultural producers emerged.41 The most important opposition to the monarchy came from the newly formed Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the 1890s which advocated Marxism. The threat of the SPD towards the German monarchy and industrialists caused the state to both crack down on socialist supporters as well as initiating social reform to soothe tensions. Germany's large industries provided significant social welfare programmes and good care to their employees as long as they were not identified as socialists or members of a trade union. Pensions sickness benefits and even housing were provided to employees by the big industries to reduce social unease.38 Wilhelm II unlike Bismarck set aside differences with the Roman Catholic Church and put the government's energy into opposing socialism at all cost.42 This policy failed when the Social Democrats won of the votes in the 1912 elections to the Reichstag and became the largest political party in Germany. The government remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clerics and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour. The rising militarism under Wilhelm II caused many Germans to emigrate to the U.S. to escape mandatory military service. During World War I the Kaiser's powers were devolved to the German High Command leaders future President of Germany Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff. Hindenburg himself had in fact taken over the role as commanderinchief from the Kaiser and Ludendorff was de facto the real general chief of staff. By 1916 Germany was effectively a military dictatorship run by Hindenburg and Ludendorff with the Kaiser a mere figurehead.43 Foreign affairs Main article: German colonial empire Wilhelm II wanted Germany to have her "place in the sun" not unlike the British with whom he constantly wished to compete and often emulatecitation needed. With German traders and merchants already engaged worldwide he encouraged colonial efforts in Africa and the Pacific ("new imperialism") in essence for the German Empire to stand up to other European powers for the remaining "unclaimed" territories. Germany acquired German Southwest Africa (today Namibia) German Kamerun (Cameroon) Togoland and German East Africa (the mainland part of current Tanzania). Islands were gained in the Pacific through purchase and treaties as well as a 99-year lease for the territory of Kiautschou in north east China. Only Togoland and German Samoa (after 1908) became self-sufficient and profitable all other territories required subsidies from the Berlin treasury for building infrastructure school systems hospitals and other institutions. An attempt to expand into American markets by establishing a colony near Curaao as part of the German Caribbean colony was undertaken in 1888 but to no avail. Bismark at the Berlin Conference 1884 Colonial efforts were treated at first contemptuously by Bismarck; he engineered a Euro-centric foreign policy as shown by the treaty arrangements during his tenure in office. Since Germany was a latecomer to colonization conflicts occurred with the established colonial powers on a number of occasions. Native insurrections in German territories became print media events especially in Britain; the established powers had dealt with their uprisings decades before often brutally and had installed firm controls by then. The Boxer Rising in China with its later sponsorship by the Chinese authorities had its beginning in the Shandong province in part because Germany as colonizer at Kiautschou was the sole untested power and only a short two years on the scene. When Wilhelm II spoke during departure ceremonies for the German contingent to the eight-nation international relief force in China an impromptu but intemperate and inopportune reference to the Hun invaders of continental Europe would later be resurrected by British propaganda to mock Germany during World War I and World War II. On two occasions a French-German conflict over the fate of Morocco seemed inevitable. Upon acquiring Southwest Africa German settlers were encouraged to cultivate land held by the Herero and Nama. Herero and Nama tribal lands were used for a variety of exploitive goals (much as the British did before in Rhodesia) including farming ranching and mining for minerals and diamonds. In 1904 the Herero and the Nama revolted against the colonists in Southwest Africa killing farm families their laborers and servants. In response to the attacks troops were dispatched to quell the uprising which then resulted in the Herero and Namaqua Genocide. In total some 65000 Herero (80% of the total Herero population) and 10000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population) perished. The commander of the punitive expedition General Lothar von Trotha was eventually relieved and reprimanded for his usurpation of orders and the cruelties he inflicted. These occurrences were sometimes referred to as "the first genocide of the 20th century" and officially condemned by the United Nations in 1985. In 2004 a formal apology by a government minister of the Federal Republic of Germany followed. Middle East Bismarck had the goal of forging closer economic relationships with the Ottoman Empire. With the financial backing of Deutsche Bank the Baghdad Railway was begun although by 1914 it was still 500 km (310 mi) short of its destination in Baghdad.44 In an interview with Wilhelm II in 1899 Cecil Rhodes had tried "to convince the Kaiser that the future of the German empire abroad lay in the Middle East" and not in Africa; with a grand Middle-Eastern empire Germany could grant Britain the unhindered completion of her Cape to Cairo pursuits.45 Building the Baghdad Railway from 19001911 was initially supported by Britain. However as time passed the British increasingly saw Germany as a vigorous competitor in the region where it believed it alone should dominate and demanded retrenchment a block to the expansion of the railway in 1911; this demand was acquiesced to by Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Eastern Europe German attitudes and inattention in letting the Bismarck designed treaties lapse and Germany's support of her ally Austria-Hungary in occupying Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 caused diplomatic relations to deteriorate with Tsarist Russia and a potential alliance with Britain to evaporate. In effect Wilhelm II had picked apart the careful power balance established by Bismarck. By 1914 the nations erratic foreign policy left Germany isolated with Austria-Hungary its only real ally. Germany's other official treaty partner the Kingdom of Italy remained an ally only pro forma and saw more benefit in entering into alliances which could take eventually the largely German-speaking territory of South Tyrol from Austria-Hungary in a future conflict which did occur. World War I See also: History of Germany during World War I Map of the World showing the Triple Entente participants in World War I. Those fighting on the Entente's side (at one point or another) are depicted in green the Central Powers in orange and neutral countries in gray. Origins Following the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke of Austria-Este Francis Ferdinand by Bosnian Serbs the Kaiser offered Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph full support of Austro-Hungarian plans to invade the Kingdom of Serbia which Austria-Hungary blamed for the assassination. This unconditional support for Austria-Hungary was called a blank cheque by historians including German Fritz Fischer.46 Subsequent interpretation for example at the Versailles Peace Conference was that this "blank cheque" licensed Austro-Hungarian aggression regardless of the diplomatic consequences and thus Germany bore responsibility for starting the war or at least provoking a wider conflict. Germany began the war by targeting its major rival France. Germany saw France as its principal danger on the European continent as it could mobilize much faster than Russia and bordered Germany's industrial core in the Rhineland. Unlike Britain and Russia the French were principally involved in the war for revenge against Germany in particular for France's loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871. The German high command knew that France would muster its forces to go into Alsace-Lorraine. Western Front Germany did not want to risk lengthy battles along the Franco-German border and instead adopted the Schlieffen Plan a military strategy designed to cripple France by invading Belgium and Luxembourg sweeping down towards Paris and encircling and crushing the French forces along the Franco-German border in a quick victory. After defeating France Germany would turn to attack Russia. The plan required the violation of Belgium's and Luxembourg's official neutrality. At first the attack was successful: the German Army swept down from Belgium and Luxembourg and was nearly at Paris at the nearby River Marne. However the French Army put up a strong resistance to defend their capital at the First Battle of the Marne resulting in the German Army retreating. The aftermath of the First Battle of the Marne was a long-held stalemate between the German Army and the Allies with the use of dug-in trench warfare. Further attempts to break through deeper into France failed at the two battles of Ypres (1st/2nd) with huge casualties. German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn decided to break away from the Schlieffen Plan and instead focus on a war of attrition against France. Falkenhayn targeted the ancient city of Verdun because Verdun had been one of the last cities to hold out against the German Army in 1870 and Falkenhayn knew that as a matter of national pride the French would do anything to ensure that Verdun was not taken. Falkenhayn anticipated that with proper tactics French losses would be greater than those of the Germans and that continued French commitment of troops to Verdun would cause the French Army to "bleed white" and then allow the German army to take France easily. In 1916 the Battle of Verdun began with the French positions in Verdun under constant shelling and poison gas attack and taking large casualties under the attack of an overwhelmingly large German forces. However Falkenhayn's prediction of a greater ratio of French killed proved to be wrong. With Falkenhayn's replacement by Erich Ludendorff and no success in sight at Verdun the German Army retreated in December 1916. Borders drawn up in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Eastern Front While the Western Front was a stalemate for the German Army the Eastern Front proved to be a great success. The badly organised and supplied Russian Army faltered and the German and Austro-Hungarian armies steadily advanced eastward. The Germans benefited from political instability in Russia and a desire to end the war. In 1916 the German government allowed Russia's communist Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin to travel through Germany from Switzerland into Russia. Germany believed that if Lenin could create further political unrest Russia would no longer be able to continue its war with Germany allowing the German Army to focus on the Western Front. In 1917 the Tsar was ousted from the Russian throne and later a Bolshevik government was created under the leadership of Lenin. Facing political opposition to the Bolsheviks Lenin decided to end Russia's campaign against Germany Austria-Hungary the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria in order to redirect its energy to eliminating internal dissent. In 1918 at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Bolshevik government gave Germany and the Ottoman Empire an enormous territorial settlement in exchange for an end to war on the Eastern Front. This settlement including all of modern-day Baltic states (Estonia Latvia and Lithuania) which were given to the German occupation authority Ober Ost and Belarus and Ukraine also were given to Germany. As a result Germany had at last achieved the long-wanted land of "Mitteleuropa" and now could fully focus on destroying the Allies on the Western Front. Colonies On the colonial front German results were mixed. Much of Germany's colonies fell to the British and French armies but in German East Africa an impressive campaign was waged by the colonial army leader there General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck. Using Germans and native Askaris Lettow-Vorbeck launched multiple guerrilla raids against British forces in Kenya and Rhodesia. He invaded Portuguese Mozambique to give his forces supplies and to pick up more Askari recruits. His force was active at war's end.47 1918 Despite success on the Eastern Front in 1918 Germany was not making progress on the Western Front for three reasons. The first was war exhaustion; German soldiers had been on the battlefield constantly without relief and after failing to break the British and French armies in offensives in March and April 1918 despite the transfer of large numbers of troops from the Eastern Front had lost hope in the chance of a victory. The second was civil unrest because of the war effort. By defeating Russia in 1917 Germany was able to bring hundreds of thousands of combat troops from the east to the Western Front giving it a numerical advantage over the Allies. By retraining the soldiers in new storm-trooper tactics the Germans expected to unfreeze the Battlefield and win a decisive victory before the American army arrived in strength.48 However the spring offensives all failed as the Allies fell back and regrouped and the Germans lacked the reserves necessary to consolidate their gains. In the summer with the Americans arriving at 10000 a day and the German reserves exhausted it was only a matter of time before multiple Allied offenses destroyed the German army.49 Home front The concept of "total war" in World War I meant that supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and with German commerce being stopped by the British naval blockade German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meagre conditions. Food prices were first limited then rationing was introduced. During the war about 750000 German civilians died from malnutrition.50 Conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes involved the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military combined with the overburdened railroad system shortages of coal and the British blockade that cut off imports from abroad. The winter of 19161917 was known as the "turnip winter" because that hardly-edible vegetable usually fed to livestock was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers.51 Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink. Revolt Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the U.S. into the war in April 1917 which changed the long-run balance of power in favor of the Allies. The end of October 1918 in Kiel in northern Germany saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 191819. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost initiating the uprising. On 3 November the revolt spread to other cities and states of the country in many of which workers' and soldiers' councils were established. Meanwhile Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government. In November 1918 with internal revolution a stalemated war Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions and pressure from the German high command the Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic. The new government led by the German Social Democrats called for and received an armistice on 11 November. The war was over; the history books closed on the German Empire. It was succeeded by the democratic yet flawed Weimar Republic.52 Legacy The German Empire left a legacy of mixed fortunes for Germany and Europe. Under Bismarck a united German state had finally been achieved but it remained a Prussian-dominated state and did not have German Austria within it as Pan-German nationalists had desired. Influence of Prussian militarism the Empires colonial efforts and its vigorous competitive industrial prowess caused a negative view of the state. The German Empire enacted a number of progressive firsts such as establishment of Europe's first social welfare system (still in place today) other social reforms as well as guaranteeing freedom of press. There was also a modern election system to the federal parliament the Reichstag which represented every adult man by one vote. This enabled the Socialists and the Catholic Centre Party to play considerable roles in the empire's political life despite the frequent hostility of Prussian aristocrats. The history of the German Empire is well remembered in Germany as a period of great cultural and intellectual vigor. Thomas Mann published his novel Buddenbrooks in 1901. Theodor Mommsen was awarded the Nobel prize for literature a year later for his Roman history. Painters like the groups Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brcke made a significant contribution to modern art. The AEG turbine building in Berlin by Peter Behrens from 1909 can be regarded as a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism. The social economic and scientific successes of this Grnderzeit or founding epoch have led the Wilhelmine era to sometimes be regarded as a golden age. In the field of economics the "Kaiserzeit" lay the foundation of Germany being one of the world's leading economic powers. The iron and coal industry of the Ruhr area at the Saar Bassin and in Upper Silesia especially contributed much to that process. The first motorcar was constructed by Karl Benz in 1886. The enormous growth of industrial production and industrial potential also led to a rapid urbanisation of Germany which turned the Germans into a nation of city dwellers. The empire's support of AustriaHungary's invasion of Serbia in the face of Russia's opposition has been seen by a number of historians as a major influence in what caused the clash of alliances in Europe which resulted in the massive war later known as World War I. The defeat and aftermath of World War I and the territorial and economic losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles caused enormous ramifications for the new German republic such as defining what the German state was and how it should operate. Conservatives liberals socialists nationalists Catholics and Protestants all had their own interpretations which led to a fractious political and social climate in Germany in the aftermath of the empire's collapse. Sonderweg Main article: Sonderweg Many historians have emphasized the central importance of a German Sonderweg or "special path" (or "exceptionalism") as the root of Nazism and the German catastrophe in the 20th century. According to the historiography by Kocka (1988) the process of nation-building from above had very grievous long-term implications historians have argued. In terms of parliamentary democracy Parliament was kept weak the parties were fragmented and there was a row file level of mutual distrust. The Nazis built on the illiberal anti-pluralist elements of Weimar's political culture. The Junker elites (the large landowners in the east) and senior civil servants used their great power and influence well into the twentieth century to frustrate any movement toward democracy. They played an especially negative role in the crisis of 19301933. Bismarck's emphasis on military force amplified the voice of the officer corps which combined advanced modernization of military technology with reactionary politics. The rising upper-middle-class elites in the business financial and professional worlds tended to accept the values of the old traditional elites. The German Empire was for Hans-Ulrich Wehler a strange mixture of highly successful capitalist industrialization and socio-economic modernization on the one hand and of surviving pre-industrial institutions power relations and traditional cultures on the other. Wehler argues that it produced a high degree of internal tension which led on the one hand to the suppression of socialists Catholics and reformers and on the other hand to a highly aggressive foreign policy. For these reasons Fritz Fischer and his students emphasized Germanys primary guilt for causing World War I.53 Hans-Ulrich Wehler a leader of the Bielefeld School of social history places the origins of Germany's path to disaster in the 1860s-1870s when economic modernization took place but political modernization did not happen and the old Prussian rural elite remained in firm control of the army diplomacy and the civil service. Traditional aristocratic premodern society battled an emerging capitalist bourgeois modernizing society. Recognizing the importance of modernizing forces in industry and the economy and in the cultural realm Wehler argues that reactionary traditionalism dominated the political hierarchy of power in Germany as well as social mentalities and in class relations (Klassenhabitus). The catastrophic German politics between 1914 and 1945 are interpreted in terms of a delayed modernization of its political structures. At the core of Wehler's interpretation is his treatment of "the middle class" and "revolution" each of which was instrumental in shaping the 20th century. Wehler's examination of Nazi rule is shaped by his concept of "charismatic domination" which focuses heavily on Adolf Hitler.54 The historiographical concept of a German Sonderweg has had a turbulent history. Nineteenth century scholars who emphasized a separate German path to modernity saw it as a positive factor that differentiated Germany from the "western path" typified by Great Britain. The stressed the strong bureaucratic state reforms initiated by Bismarck and other strong leaders the Prussian service ethos the high culture of philosophy and music and Germany's pioneering of a social welfare state. In the 1950s historians in West German argued that the Sonderweg lead Germany to the disaster of 19331945. The special circumstances of German historical structures and experiences were interpreted as preconditions that while not directly causing National Socialism did hamper the development of a liberal democracy and facilitate the rise of fascism. The Sonderweg paradigm has provided the impetus for at least three strands of research in German historiography: the "long nineteenth century" the history of the bourgeoisie and comparisons with the West. After 1990 increased attention to cultural dimensions and to comparative and relational history moved German historiography to different topics with much less attention paid to the Sonderweg. While some historians have abandoned the Sonderweg thesis they have not provided a generally accepted alternative interpretation.55 Territorial legacy In addition to present-day Germany large parts of what comprised the German Empire now belong to several other modern European countries: German name Country Region Elsass-Lothringen France The German-speaking dpartements of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin (Alsace region) and Moselle (northeastern part of the Lorraine region) The Eupen und Malmdy area (intentionally spelled with only then) Belgium Eupen and Malmedy two towns and surrounding municipalities in the province of Lige on the German border Nordschleswig Denmark South Jutland County Hultschiner Lndchen Czech Republic Hlun Region on the border to Poland in Silesia from which most of Germans were deported following WWII. Central and eastern Pommern Schlesien Ostbrandenburg Ermland Masuren Westpreuen Southern Ostpreuen Also Posen (Wartheland). Poland the northern and western parts of the country including Pomerania Silesia Lubusz Land Warmia and Masuria from all of which Germans were deported following WWII. Northern Ostpreuen with Knigsberg Russia Kaliningrad Oblast exclave on the Baltic from which Germans were deported following WWII. Memelland with Memel (city) Lithuania Klaipda Region including the Baltic coastal city of Klaipda from which Germans were deported following WWII. Claims to continued existence Since 1985 a number of German fringe groups and individuals collectively labeled Kommissarische Reichsregierungen (KRR) assert that the Empire continues to exist in its preWorld War II borders and that they are its government.56 See also Germany portal German colonization of the Americas German East Africa Company German New Guinea Company List of former German colonies Reichskolonialbund Wilhelminism References a b "German constitution of 1871" (in (German)). De.wikisource.org. 2011-03-16. http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/VerfassungdesDeutschenReiches(1871). Retrieved 2011-04-02.  "German Empire: administrative subdivision and municipalities 1900 to 1910" (in German). http://www.gemeindeverzeichnis.de/gem1900/gem1900.htmgem19002.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-25.  "Population statistics of the German Empire 1871" (in German). http://www.deutsche-schutzgebiete.de/einwohner.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-25.  J. H. Clapham The Economic Development of France and Germany 18151914 (1936) http://www.idsia.ch/juergen/sci.html Edmond Taylor The fossil monarchies: the collapse of the old order 19051922 (1967) p 206 "Fremdsprachige Minderheiten im Deutschen Reich" (in German). http://www.verwaltungsgeschichte.de/fremdsprachen.html. Retrieved 2010-01-20.  Matthew Fitzpatrick "A Fall from Grace National Unity and the Search for Naval Power and Colonial Possessions 18481884" German History April 2007 Vol. 25#2 pp 135161 David Ciarlo "Globalizing German Colonialism" German History April 2008 Vol. 26 Issue 2 pp 285298 L. Gann and Peter Duignan The Rulers of German Africa 18841914 (1977) focuses on political and economic history; Michael Perraudin and Jrgen Zimmerer eds. German Colonialism and National Identity (2010) focuses on cultural impact in Africa and Germany. Tilman Dedering "The German-Herero of war 1904: Revisionism of genocide" Journal of Southern African Studies March 1993 Vol. 19 Issue 1 pp 8088 Allan Mitchell Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry 18151914 (2000) Jochen Streb et al. "Technological and geographical knowledge spillover in the German empire 18771918" Economic History Review May 2006 Vol. 59 Issue 2 pp 347373 Stephen Broadberry and Kevin H. O'Rourke. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe (2 vol. 2010) John J. Beer The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (1959). Werner Abelshauser German History and Global Enterprise: BASF: The History of a Company (2004) covers 1865 to 2000; Chandler (1990) p 4745 Carsten Burhop "Pharmaceutical Research in Wilhelmine Germany: the Case of E. Merck" Business History Review. Volume: 83. Issue: 3. 2009. pp 475+. in ProQuest J.A.S. Grenville Europe reshaped 18481878 (2000) p 342 Marjorie Lamberti "Religious conflicts and German national identity in Prussia 18661914" in Philip G. Dwyer ed. Modern Prussian History: 18301947 (2001) pp. 169187 Lamberti (2001) p 177 Ronald J. Ross The failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf: Catholicism and state power in imperial Germany 18711887 (1998) Hajo Holborn A History of Modern Germany: 18401945 (1969) 258260 Christopher Clark Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 16001947 (2006) pp 568576 E. P. Hennock The Origin of the Welfare State in England and Germany 18501914: Social Policies Compared (2007); Hermann Beck Origins of the Authoritarian Welfare State in Prussia 18151870 (1995) Elaine Glovka Spencer "Rules of the Ruhr: Leadership and Authority in German Big Business Before 1914" Business History Review Spring 1979 Vol. 53 Issue 1 pp 4064; Ivo N. Lambi "The Protectionist Interests of the German Iron and Steel Industry 18731879" Journal of Economic History March 1962 Vol. 22 Issue 1 pp 5970 Timothy Baycroft and Mark Hewitson What is a nation: Europe 17891914 (2006) p 166 John J. Kulczycki School Strikes in Prussian Poland 19011907: The Struggle over Bilingual Education (Columbia University Press 1981) Martin Broszat: Zweihundert Jahre deutsche Polenpolitik. suhrkamp 1978 p. 144; ISBN 3-518-36574-6 Fritz Stern Gold and iron: Bismarck Bleichrder and the building of the German empire (1977) Richard S. Levy The Downfall of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Germany (Yale University Press 1975) Kitchen Martin (2000). Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany. Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0521794329.  Judd Denis (1976). Eclipse of Kings. Stein & Day. p. 13. ISBN 978-0685701195.  a b c Kurtz Harold (1970). The Second Reich: Kaiser Wilhelm II and his Germany. McGraw-Hill. p. 60. ISBN 978-0070356535.  Strmer Michael (2000). The German Empire: 18701918. New York: Random House. p. 63. ISBN 0679640908..  a b Kurtz Harold (1970) 63 Kurtz Harold (1970) 67 a b Kurtz Harold (1970) 72 Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad H. Jarausch eds. German Professions 18001950 (1990) Kurtz Harold (1970) 76 Matthew Jefferies Imperial Culture in Germany 18711918 (2003). Kurtz Harold (1970) 56 Lamar Cecil Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile 19001941 (1996) ch 913 Strmer Michael (2000) 91 Louis Ruanda-Urundi 18841919 p. 163 "The 'Fischer Hypothesis' and the start of World War I Answers.com". Wiki.answers.com. 1997-07-26. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/WhatevidencedidFritzFischerproduceforhisclaimthatGermanycausedWorldWar1/. Retrieved 2011-04-02.  Edwin Hoyt Colonel von Lettow-Vorbeck and Germany's East African Empire (1981) Holger H. Herwig The First World War: Germany and AustriaHungary 19141918 (1996) Rod Paschall The defeat of imperial Germany 19171918 (1994) German Historical Museum. "191418: Lebensmittelversorgung" (in German). http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/wk1/wirtschaft/versorgung/index.html.  Roger Chickering Imperial Germany and the Great War 19141918 (2004) p. 14142 A. J. Ryder The German Revolution of 1918: A Study of German Socialism in War and Revolt (2008) Jrgen Kocka "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German 'Sonderweg.'" Journal of Contemporary History Jan 1988 Vol. 23#1 pp 316 in JSTOR Wehler Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte: Vom Beginn des Ersten Weltkrieges bis zur Grndung der Beiden Deutschen Staaten 19141949 (2003) is the fourth volume of his monumental history of German society. None of the series has yet been translated into English. A partial summary appears in Hans-Ulrich Wehler The German Empire 18711918 (1997) Helmut Walser Smith "When the Sonderweg Debate Left Us" German Studies Review May 2008 Vol. 31#2 pp 225240 Thiriet Maurice (11 March 2009). ""Reichsfhrerschein" im Thurgau nicht gltig" (in German). Tages-Anzeiger. http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/panorama/vermischtes/Reichsfuehrerschein-im-Thurgau-nicht-gueltig/story/27903000. Retrieved 2009-03-25.  Further reading Berghahn Volker Rolf. Modern Germany: society economy and politics in the twentieth century (1987) ACLS E-book Berghahn Volker Rolf. "Structure and Agency in Wilhelmine Germany: The history of the German Empire Past present and Future" in Annika Mombauer and Wilhelm Deist eds. The Kaiser: New Research on Wilhelm II's Role in Imperial Germany (2003) pp 28193 historiography Blackbourn David. The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany 17801918 (1998) excerpt and text search Blackbourn David and Geoff Eley. The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany (1984) online edition ISBN 0-19-873058-6. Cecil Lamar. Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor 18591900 (1989) online edition; vol2: Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile 19001941 (1996) online edition Dickinson Edward Ross. "The German Empire: an Empire" History Workshop Journal Issue 66 Autumn 2008 in Project MUSE Fischer Fritz. From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History 18711945. (1986). ISBN 0-04-943043-2. Fischer Fritz. War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914. (Norton 1975). ISBN 0-393-05480-2. Holborn Hajo. A History of Modern Germany: 18401945 (1969) pp 173532 Jefferies Mattew. Imperial Culture in Germany 18711918. (Palgrave 2003) ISBN 1-4039-0421-9. Kennedy Paul. The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism 18601914 (2nd ed. 1988) ISBN 1-57392-301-X Mommsen Wolfgang. Imperial Germany 18671918: Politics Culture and Society in an Authoritarian State. (1995). ISBN 0-340-64534-2. Kurlander Eric. The Price of Exclusion: Ethnicity National Identity and the Decline of German Liberalism 18981933 (2007). Pflanze Otto. Bismarck and the Development of Germany 3 vols. (196390). the standard scholarly biography Reagin Nancy. "The Imagined Hausfrau: National Identity Domesticity and Colonialism in Imperial Germany" Journal of Modern History Vol. 73 No. 1 (March 2001) pp. 5486 in JSTOR Reagin Nancy R. "Recent Work on German National Identity: Regional Imperial Gendered Imaginary" Central European History 2004 37 pp 273289 doi:10.1163/156916104323121483 Retallack James. Germany In The Age of Kaiser Wilhelm II (1996) ISBN 0-312-16031-3. Ritter Gerhard. The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany. (4 vol University of Miami Press 196973) Scheck Raffael. Lecture Notes Germany and Europe 18711945 (2008) full text online a brief textbook by a leading scholar Schollgen Gregor. Escape into War The Foreign Policy of Imperial Germany. (Berg 1990) ISBN 0-85496-275-1. Smith Woodruff D. The German Colonial Empire (1978) Strmer Michael. The German Empire 18701918. (Random House 2000). ISBN 0-679-64090-8. Taylor A.J.P. Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman (1967) online edition Wehler Hans-Ulrich. The German Empire 18711918. (Berg 1985). ISBN 0-907582-22-2. External links Look up german empire in Wiktionary the free dictionary. Media related to German Empire at Wikimedia Commons Ravenstein's Atlas of the German Empire Library.wis.edu Administrative subdivision and census results (1900/1910) Gemeindeverzeichnis.de (German)  Links to related articles v d e States of the German Empire (18711918) Kingdoms Prussia  Bavaria  Saxony  Wrttemberg Grand Duchies Baden  Hesse  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  Oldenburg  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Duchies Anhalt  Brunswick  Saxe-Altenburg  Saxe-Coburg and Gotha  Saxe-Lauenburg (until 1876)  Saxe-Meiningen Principalities Schaumburg-Lippe  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  Lippe  Reuss Elder Line  Reuss Junior Line  Waldeck-Pyrmont City-states Bremen  Hamburg  Lbeck Other territories Elsa-Lothringen  Colonial possessions v d eGerman Reichs First (Holy Roman Empire) 962-1806 Second (German Empire) 1871-1918 Third (Nazi Germany) 1933-1945 Fourth (hypothetical) v d eA history of empires Ancient empires Akkadian  Egyptian  Kushite  Puntite  Azanian  Assyrian  Babylonian  Aksumite  Hittite  Armenian  Persian (Medes  Achaemenid  Parthian  Sassanid)  Macedonian (Ptolemaic  Seleucid)  Indian (Maurya  Kushan  Gupta)  Chinese (Qin  Han  Jin)  Roman (Western  Eastern)  Teotihuacan Medieval empires Byzantine  Hunnic  Arab (Rashidun  Umayyad  Abbasid  Fatimid  Caliphate of Crdoba  Ayyubid)  Moroccan (Idrisid  Almoravid  Almohad  Marinid)  Persian (Tahirid  Samanid  Buyid  Sallarid  Ziyarid)  Ghaznavid  Bulgarian (First  Second)  Benin  Great Seljuq  Oyo  Bornu  Khwarezmian  Aragonese  Timurid  Indian (Chola  Gurjara-Pratihara  Pala  Eastern Ganga dynasty  Delhi)  Mongol (Yuan  Golden Horde  Chagatai Khanate  Ilkhanate)  Kanem  Serbian  Songhai  Khmer  Carolingian  Holy Roman  Angevin  Mali  Chinese (Sui  Tang  Song  Yuan)  Wagadou  Aztec  Inca  Srivijaya  Majapahit  Ethiopian (Zagwe  Solomonic)  Somali (Ajuuraan  Warsangali)  Adalite Modern empires Tongan  Indian (Maratha  Sikh  Mughal)  Chinese (Ming  Qing)  Ottoman  Persian (Safavid  Afsharid  Zand  Qajar  Pahlavi)  Moroccan (Saadi  Alaouite)  Ethiopian  Somali (Dervish  Gobroon  Hobyo)   French (First  Second)  Austrian (Austro-Hungarian)  German  Russian  Swedish  Mexican (First  Second)  Brazil   Korea  Japan  Haitian (First  Second) Colonial empires Portuguese  Spanish   Danish  Dutch  British   French   German  Italian