For other uses see Hedonism (disambiguation).

Hedonism is a school of thought which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good.1 This is often used as a justification for evaluating actions in terms of how much pleasure and how little pain (i.e. suffering) they produce. In very simple terms a hedonist strives to maximize this net pleasure (pleasure minus pain). Contents 1 Etymology 2 Classic schools of antiquity 2.1 Crvka 2.2 The Cyrenaic school 2.3 Epicureanism 3 Christian 4 Utilitarianism 4.1 Mohism 4.2 Modern utilitarianism 5 Egoism 6 Contemporary approaches 6.1 Michel Onfray 6.2 Abolitionism 7 Criticism 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Etymology

The name derives from the Greek word for "delight" ( hdonismos from hdon "pleasure" a cognate of English sweet + suffix - -ismos "ism"). Classic schools of antiquity

Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher on record to have categorically embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme goal of life "contentment" or "cheerfulness" claiming that "joy and sorrow are the distinguishing mark of things beneficial and harmful" (DK 68 B 188).2 Crvka Main article: Crvka

Crvka was an Indian hedonist school of thought that arose approximately 600 BC and died out in the 14th century AD. The Crvkas maintained that the Hindu scriptures are false that the priests are liars and that there is no afterlife and that pleasure should be the aim of living. Unlike other Indian schools of philosophy the Crvkas argued that there is nothing wrong with sensual indulgence. They held a naturalistic worldview. The Cyrenaic school Main article: Cyrenaics Aristippus of Cyrene

The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BC supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene although many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of the same name Aristippus the Younger. The school was so called after Cyrene the birthplace of Aristippus. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools. The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure which meant not just the absence of pain but positively enjoyable sensations. Of these momentary pleasures especially physical ones are stronger than those of anticipation or memory. They did however recognize the value of social obligation and that pleasure could be gained from altruismcitation needed . The school died out within a century and was replaced by the more sophisticated philosophy of Epicureanism. Epicureanism Main articles: Epicureanism and Epicurus

Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. 341c. 270 BC) founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general stance against superstition or the idea of divine intervention. Following Aristippusabout whom very little is knownEpicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) as well as absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires. The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole intrinsic good its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy of a simple life make it different from "hedonism" as it is commonly understood. Epicurus

In the Epicurean view the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained by knowledge friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life. He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires such as sex and appetites verging on asceticism. He argued that when eating one should not eat too richly for it could lead to dissatisfaction later such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future. Likewise sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner. Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics that has survived.

Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism though later it became the main opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and his followers shunned politics. After the death of Epicurus his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those in Antiochia Alexandria Rhodes and Ercolano). The poet Lucretius is its most known Roman proponent. By the end of the Roman Empire having undergone Christian attack and repression Epicureanism had all but died out and would be resurrected in the 17th century by the atomist Pierre Gassendi who adapted it to the Christian doctrine.

Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem On the Nature of Things by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus. Christian Main article: Christian hedonism Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian doctrine current in some evangelical circles particularly those of the Reformed tradition. The term was coined by Reformed Baptist pastor John Piper in his 1986 book Desiring God. Piper summarizes this philosophy of the Christian life as "God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in Him."3 Christian Hedonism may anachronistically describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards. In the 17th century the atomist Pierre Gassendi adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine. Utilitarianism Main article: Utilitarianism Mohism Main article: Mohism Mohism was a philosophical school of thought founded by Mozi in the 5th century BC. It paralleled the utilitarianism later developed by English thinkers. As Confucianism became the preferred philosophy of later Chinese dynasties Mohism and other non-Confucian philosophical schools of thought were suppressed.citation needed Modern utilitarianism The 18th and 19th-century British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill defended the ethical theory of utilitarianism according to which we should perform whichever action maximizes the aggregate good. Conjoining hedonism as a view as to what is good for people to utilitarianism has the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount of happiness (Hedonic Calculus). Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness Bentham and Mills versions of hedonism differ. There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism:1 One school grouped around Jeremy Bentham defends a quantitative approach. Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood. Essentially he believed the value of pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration - so it was not just the number of pleasures but their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account. Other proponents like John Stuart Mill argue a qualitative approach. Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often refers to pigs) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life they can simply indulge in their lower pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for simple pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such "simple pleasures" in the same manner. Critics of the quantitative approach assert that generally "pleasures" do not necessarily share common traits besides the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable."citation needed Critics of the qualitative approach argue that whether one pleasure is higher than another depends on factors other than how pleasurable it is.citation needed Egoism Hedonism can be conjoined with psychological egoism - the theory that humans are motivated only by their self interest - to make psychological hedonism: a purely descriptive claim which states that agents naturally seek pleasure. Hedonism can also be combined with ethical egoism - the claim that individuals should seek their own good - to make ethical hedonism the claim that we should act so as to produce our own pleasure. However hedonism is not necessarily related to egoism. The utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and happiness of all. This is altruistic hedonism. Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run) Mill promotes actions which make everyone happy. Compare individualism and collectivism. It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from achieving that same objective. Some of Sigmund Freud's theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonismcitation needed; his "life instinct" is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure. However he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms such as the "death instinct". The death instinct Thanatos can be equated to the desire for silence and peace for calm and darkness which causes them another form of happiness. It is also a death instinct thus it can also be the desire for death. Psychoanalysis has developed greatly since Freud but his ideas remain influential and contentious. Contemporary approaches A modern proponent of hedonism with an ethical touch is the Swedish philosopher Torbjrn Tnnsj.4 Michel Onfray Main article: Michel Onfray A dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher and on the history of hedonistic thought is the French Michel Onfray. He defines hedonism "as an introspective attitude to life based on taking pleasure yourself and pleasuring others without harming yourself or anyone else."5 "Onfray's philosophical project is to define an ethical hedonism a joyous utilitarianism and a generalized aesthetic of sensual materialism that explores how to use the brain's and the body's capacities to their fullest extent -- while restoring philosophy to a useful role in art politics and everyday life and decisions."6 Onfray's works "have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (and challenges to) science painting gastronomy sex and sensuality bioethics wine and writing. His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter-history of Philosophy"6 of which three have been published. For him "In opposition to the ascetic ideal advocated by the dominant school of thought hedonism suggests identifying the highest good with your own pleasure and that of others; the one must never be indulged at the expense of sacrificing the other. Obtaining this balance my pleasure at the same time as the pleasure of others presumes that we approach the subject from different angles political ethical aesthetic erotic bioethical pedagogical historiographical." For this he has "written books on each of these facets of the same world view."7 His philosophy aims "for "micro-revolutions " or revolutions of the individual and small groups of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic libertarian values."8 Abolitionism Main article: Abolitionism (bioethics) The Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist group calling for the abolition of suffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced biotechnology. Their core philosophy is negative utilitarianism. Criticism Hedonism has been criticized by a number of modern authors and philosophers. G.E. Moore argued that hedonists commit the naturalistic fallacy. Ayn Rand widely read as a modern proponent of ethical egoism9 rejected ethical hedonism: To take "whatever makes one happy" as a guide to action means: to be guided by nothing but one's emotional whims. Emotions are not tools of cognition. . . . This is the fallacy inherent in hedonism in any variant of ethical hedonism personal or social individual or collective. "Happiness" can properly be the purpose of ethics but not the standard. The task of ethics is to define man's proper code of values and thus to give him the means of achieving happiness. To declare as the ethical hedonists do that "the proper value is whatever gives you pleasure" is to declare that "the proper value is whatever you happen to value" which is an act of intellectual and philosophical abdication an act which merely proclaims the futility of ethics and invites all men to play it deuces wild.10 See also Abolitionism (bioethics) Affectionism Christian hedonism Dandyism - a philosophy based on Hedonism popular during the late-19th century            Egoist anarchism Ethical egoism Hedonistic relevance Paradox of hedonism Pleasure principle (psychology) Psychological egoism Psychological hedonism Rational egoism Utilitarianism References Notes a b Hedonism 2004-04-20 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy p. 125 C.C.W. Taylor "Democritus" in C. Rowe & M. Schofield (eds.) Greek and Roman Political Thought Cambridge 2005. http://www.desiringgod.org/ResourceLibrary/TopicIndex/85ChristianHedonism/1538ChristianHedonism/ Torbjrn Tnnsj; Hedonistic Utilitarianism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press (1998). http://newhumanist.org.uk/1421 "Atheism la mode" a b Introductory Note to Onfray by Doug Ireland Michel Onfray: A philosopher of the Enlightenment France Media Michel Onfray A self labeled Anarchist Rand Ayn (1964). The Virtue of Selfishness. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-451-16393-1. OCLC 28103453. Ayn Rand The Virtue of Selfishness "The Objectivist Ethics". Sources  Chisholm Hugh ed (1911). "Hedonism". Encyclopdia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.  External links Look up hedonism in Wiktionary the free dictionary. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Manifesto of the Hedonist International v d ePhilosophy Schools of thought Anarchism  Deism  Deontology  Dualism  Empiricism  Epiphenomenalism  Feminism  Functionalism  Hedonism  Hermeneutics  Humanism  Idealism  Materialism  Monism  Naturalism  Nihilism  Process  Solipsism  Rationalism  Realism  Relativism  Skepticism  Utilitarianism  more... 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