Jeremy Bentham ( /bnm/ or /bntm/; 15 February 1748 6 June 1832) was an English jurist philosopher and legal and social reformer. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism. He is best known for his advocacy of utilitarianism and animal rights and the idea of the panopticon.1

His position included arguments in favour of individual and economic freedom usury the separation of church and state freedom of expression equal rights for women the right to divorce and the decriminalizing of homosexual acts.2 He argued for the abolition of slavery and the death penalty and for the abolition of physical punishment including that of children.3 Although strongly in favour of the extension of individual legal rights he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights calling them "nonsense upon stilts."4

He became the most influential of the utilitarians through his own work and that of his students. These included his secretary and collaborator on the utilitarian school of philosophy James Mill; James Mill's son John Stuart Mill; John Austin legal philosopher; and several political leaders including Robert Owen a founder of modern socialism. He is considered the godfather of University College London (UCL). Contents 1 Life 2 Work 2.1 Utilitarianism 2.2 Economics 2.3 Animal rights 2.4 Gender and sexuality 3 Auto-icon 4 Publications 4.1 Transcribe Bentham 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Life Portrait of Bentham by the studio of Thomas Frye 1760-1762

Bentham was born in Houndsditch London into a wealthy family that supported the Tories. He was reportedly a child prodigy: he was found as a toddler sitting at his father's desk reading a multi-volume history of England and he began to study Latin at the age of three.5 He had one surviving sibling Samuel Bentham with whom he shared a close bond.

He attended Westminster School and in 1760 at age 12 was sent by his father to The Queen's College Oxford where he completed his Bachelor's degree in 1763 and his Master's degree in 1766. He trained as a lawyer and though he never practiced was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code which he termed the "Demon of Chicane".

When the American colonies published their Declaration of Independence in July 1776 the British government did not issue any official response but instead secretly commissioned London lawyer and pamphleteer John Lind to publish a rebuttal.6 His 130-page tract was distributed in the colonies and contained an essay titled "Short Review of the Declaration" authored by Bentham a friend of Lind's which attacked and mocked the Americans' political philosophy.7

Among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although it was never built the idea had an important influence upon later generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of a whole raft of 19th-century 'disciplinary' institutions. It is said that Mexican prison "Lecumberri" was designed on the basis of this idea.8

More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the pool of London which led to the Thames Police Bill of 1798 which was eventually passed in 1800 leading to the formation of the Thames River Police which was the first preventive police force in the country and was a precedent for Peel's reforms 30 years later.9

Bentham was in correspondence with many influential people. Adam Smith for example opposed free interest rates before he was made aware of Bentham's arguments on the subject. As a result of his correspondence with Mirabeau and other leaders of the French Revolution he was declared an honorary citizen of France.10 Bentham was an outspoken critic of the revolutionary discourse of natural rights and of the violence that arose after the Jacobins took power (1792). Between 1808 and 1810 he held a personal friendship with Latin American Independence Precursor Francisco de Miranda and paid visits to Miranda's Grafton Way house in London. In 1823 he co-founded the Westminster Review with James Mill as a journal for the "Philosophical Radicals"a group of younger disciples through whom Bentham exerted considerable influence in British public life.11 One such young writer was Edwin Chadwick who wrote on hygiene sanitation and policing and was a major contributor to the Poor Law Amendment Act.12 Bentham employed him as a secretary and bequeathed him a large legacy. Bentham is frequently associated with the foundation of the University of London specifically University College London (UCL) though he was 78 years old when UCL opened in 1826 and played no active part in its establishment. It is likely that without his inspiration UCL would not have been created when it was. Bentham strongly believed that education should be more widely available particularly to those who were not wealthy or who did not belong to the established church both of which were required of students by Oxford and Cambridge. As UCL was the first English university to admit all regardless of race creed or political belief it was largely consistent with Bentham's vision. He oversaw the appointment of one of his pupils John Austin as the first professor of Jurisprudence in 1829. An insight into his character is given in Michael St. John Packe's The Life of John Stuart Mill: During his youthful visits to Bowood House the country seat of his patron Lord Lansdowne he had passed his time at falling unsuccessfully in love with all the ladies of the house whom he courted with a clumsy jocularity while playing chess with them or giving them lessons on the harpsichord. Hopeful to the last at the age of eighty he wrote again to one of them recalling to her memory the far-off days when she had "presented him in ceremony with the flower in the green lane" citing Bentham's memoirs. To the end of his life he could not hear of Bowood without tears swimming in his eyes and he was forced to exclaim "Take me forward I entreat you to the future  do not let me go back to the past."13 Work Utilitarianism Part of a series on Utilitarianism Predecessors Epicurus David Hume  William Godwin  Francis Hutcheson People Jeremy Bentham  John Stuart Mill Henry Sidgwick  Richard Mervyn Hare  Peter Singer Types of utilitarianism Preference  Rule  Act Two-level  Total  Average Relative  Negative  Hedonism Enlightened self-interest Key concepts Pain  Suffering  Pleasure Utility  Happiness  Eudaimonia Consequentialism  Felicific calculus Problems Mere addition paradox Paradox of hedonism Utility monster Related topics Rational choice theory  Game theory Social choice  Neoclassical economics   Politics portal v d e Bentham's ambition in life was to create a "Pannomion" a complete utilitarian code of law. Bentham not only proposed many legal and social reforms but also expounded an underlying moral principle on which they should be based. This utilitarianism philosophy argued that the right act or policy was that which would cause "the greatest good for the greatest number of people"citation needed also known as "the greatest happiness principle" or the principle of utility. He wrote in The Principles of Morals and Legislation: Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong on the other the chain of causes and effects are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do in all we say in all we think ...14 He also suggested a procedure for estimating the moral status of any action which he called the Hedonistic or felicific calculus. Utilitarianism was revised and expanded by Bentham's student John Stuart Mill. In Mill's hands "Benthamism" became a major element in the liberal conception of state policy objectives. Bentham proposed a classification of 12 pains and 14 pleasures and 'felicific calculus' by which we might test the 'happiness factor' of any action.15 Nonetheless it should not be overlooked that Bentham's 'hedonistic' theory (a term from J.J.C. Smart) unlike Mill's is often saidby whom to lack a principle of fairness embodied in a conception of justice. In "Bentham and the Common Law Tradition" Gerald J. Postema states "No moral concept suffers more at Bentham's hand than the concept of justice. There is no sustained mature analysis of the notion ..."16 Thus some critics object it would be acceptable to torture one person if this would produce an amount of happiness in other people outweighing the unhappiness of the tortured individual. However as P. J. Kelly argued in his book Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice: Jeremy Bentham and the Civil Law Bentham had a theory of justice that prevented such consequences. According to Kelly for Bentham the law "provides the basic framework of social interaction by delimiting spheres of personal inviolability within which individuals can form and pursue their own conceptions of well-being."17 It provides security a precondition for the formation of expectations. As the hedonic calculus shows "expectation utilities" to be much higher than natural ones it follows that Bentham does not favour the sacrifice of a few to the benefit of the many. Bentham's Principles of Legislation focuses on the principle of utility and how this view of morality ties into legislative practices. His principle of utility regards "good" as that which produces the greatest amount of pleasure and the minimum amount of pain and "evil" as that which produces the most pain without the pleasure. This concept of pleasure and pain is defined by Bentham as physical as well as spiritual. Bentham writes about this principle as it manifests itself within the legislation of a society. He lays down a set of criteria for measuring the extent of pain or pleasure that a certain decision will create. The criteria are divided into the categories of intensity duration certainty proximity productiveness purity and extent. Using these measurements he reviews the concept of punishment and when it should be used as far as whether a punishment will create more pleasure or more pain for a society. He calls for legislators to determine whether punishment creates an even more evil offense. Instead of suppressing the evil acts Bentham is arguing that certain unnecessary laws and punishments could ultimately lead to new and more dangerous vices than those being punished to begin with. Bentham follows these statements with explanations on how antiquity religion reproach of innovation metaphor fiction fancy antipathy and sympathy begging the question and imaginary law are not justification for the creation of legislature. Instead Bentham is calling upon legislators to measure the pleasures and pains associated with any legislation and to form laws in order to create the greatest good for the greatest number. He argues that the concept of the individual pursuing his or her own happiness cannot be necessarily declared "right" because often these individual pursuits can lead to greater pain and less pleasure for the society as a whole. Therefore the legislation of a society is vital to maintaining a society with optimum pleasure and the minimum degree of pain for the greatest amount of people. Economics His opinions about monetary economics were completely different from those of David Ricardo; however they had some similarities to those of Thornton. He focused on monetary expansion as a means of helping to create full employment. He was also aware of the relevance of forced saving propensity to consume the saving-investment relationship and other matters that form the content of modern income and employment analysis. His monetary view was close to the fundamental concepts employed in his model of utilitarian decision making. His work is widely regarded to be at the forefront of modern welfare economics. Bentham stated that pleasures and pains can be ranked according to their value or "dimension" such as intensity duration certainty of a pleasure or a pain. He was concerned with maxima and minima of pleasures and pains; and they set a precedent for the future employment of the maximisation principle in the economics of the consumer the firm and the search for an optimum in welfare economics.18 Animal rights Bentham is widely recognised as one of the earliest proponents of animal rights. He argued that the ability to suffer not the ability to reason should be the benchmark or what he called the "insuperable line." If reason alone were the criterion by which we judge who ought to have rights human infants and adults with certain forms of disability might fall short too.1920 In 1789 alluding to the limited degree of legal protection afforded to slaves in the French West Indies by the Code Noir he wrote: The day has been I am sad to say in many places it is not yet past in which the greater part of the species under the denomination of slaves have been treated by the law exactly upon the same footing as in England for example the inferior races of animals are still. The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny. The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason a human being should be abandoned without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day come to be recognised that the number of the legs the villosity of the skin or the termination of the os sacrum are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace the insuperable line Is it the faculty of reason or perhaps the faculty of discourse But a full-grown horse or dog is beyond comparison a more rational as well as a more conversable animal than an infant of a day or a week or even a month old. But suppose the case were otherwise what would it avail The question is not Can they reason nor Can they talk but Can they suffer 21 Gender and sexuality Bentham said that it was the placing of women in a legally inferior position that made him choose at the age of eleven the career of a reformist.22 Bentham spoke for a complete equality between sexes. The essay Offences Against One's Self argued for the liberalisation of laws prohibiting homosexuality.23 The essay remained unpublished during his lifetime for fear of offending public morality. It was published for the first time in 1931.24 While Bentham clearly disapproves of homosexuality as "irregularities of the venereal appetite" the essay chastises the society of the time for making a disproportionate response to what Bentham appears to consider a largely private offencepublic displays or forced acts being dealt with rightly by other laws. Auto-icon Bentham's Auto-icon As requested in his will Bentham's body was dissected as part of a public anatomy lecture. Afterward the skeleton and head were preserved and stored in a wooden cabinet called the "Auto-icon" with the skeleton stuffed out with hay and dressed in Bentham's clothes. Originally kept by his disciple Thomas Southwood Smith25 it was acquired by University College London in 1850. It is normally kept on public display at the end of the South Cloisters in the main building of the college but for the 100th and 150th anniversaries of the college it was brought to the meeting of the College Council where it was listed as "present but not voting".26 The Auto-icon has a wax head as Bentham's head was badly damaged in the preservation process. The real head was displayed in the same case for many years but became the target of repeated student pranks. It is now locked away securely.27 Publications Bentham left manuscripts amounting to some 5000000 words. Since 1968 the Bentham Project at University College London has been working on an edition of his collected works. The Project is now attempting to digitise the Bentham papers and outsource their transcription. See Transcribe Bentham below. So far 25 volumes have appeared; there may be as many still to come before the project is completed. Most of his writing was never published in his lifetime; much of that which was published (see this list of published works) was prepared for publication by others. Several of his works first appeared in French translation prepared for the press by tienne Dumont. Some made their first appearance in English in the 1820s as a result of back-translation from Dumont's 1802 collection (and redaction) of Bentham's writing on civil and penal legislation. Works published in Bentham's lifetime include: "Short Review of the Declaration" (1776). An attack on America's Declaration of Independence. Fragment on Government (1776). This was an unsparing criticism of some introductory passages relating to political theory in William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England. The book published anonymously was well-received and credited to some of the greatest minds of the time. Bentham disagreed with Blackstone's defence of judge-made law his defence of legal fictions his theological formulation of the doctrine of mixed government his appeal to a social contract and his use of the vocabulary of natural law. Bentham's "Fragment" was only a small part of a "Commentary on the Commentaries" which remained unpublished until the twentieth century. Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation (printed for publication 1780 published 1789). Defence of Usury (1787). Jeremy Bentham wrote a series of thirteen Letters addressed to Adam Smith published in 1787 as Defence of Usury. Benthams main argument against the restriction is that projectors generate positive externalities. Gilbert K. Chesterton identified Bentham's essay on usury as the very beginning of the 'modern world.' Benthams arguments were very influential. Writers of eminence moved to abolish the restriction and repeal was achieved in stages and fully achieved in England in 1854. There is little evidence as to Smiths reaction. He did not revise the offending passages in The Wealth of Nations but Smith made little or no substantial revisions after the third edition of 1784.28 Panopticon (1787 1791). Emancipate your Colonies (1793) Trait de Lgislation Civile et Penale (1802 edited by tienne Dumont. 3 vols) Punishments and Rewards (1811) A Table of the Springs of Action (1815) Parliamentary Reform Catechism (1817) Church-of-Englandism (printed 1817 published 1818) Elements of the Art of Packing (1821) The Influence of Natural Religion upon the Temporal Happiness of Mankind (1822 written with George Grote and published under the pseudonym Philip Beauchamp) Not Paul But Jesus (1823 published under the pseudonym Gamaliel Smith) Book of Fallacies (1824) A Treatise on Judicial Evidence (1825) John Bowring a British politician who had been Bentham's trusted friend was appointed his literary executor and charged with the task of preparing a collected edition of his works. This appeared in 11 volumes in 1838-1843: Bowring based his edition on previously published editions (including those of Dumont) rather than Bentham's own manuscripts and he did not reprint Bentham's works on religion at all. Bowring's work has been criticised although it includes such interesting writings on international relations as Bentham's A Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace written 1786-89 which forms part IV of the Principles of International Law. In 1952-54 Werner Stark published a three-volume set Jeremy Bentham's Economic Writings in which he attempted to bring together all of Bentham's writings on economic matters including both published and unpublished material. Not trusting Bowring's edition he painstakingly reviewed thousands of Bentham's original manuscripts and notes a task made monumentally more difficult because of the manner in which they had been left by Bentham and organised by Bowring. Transcribe Bentham The Bentham Project in UCL29 has launched a digitisation and crowdsourcing initiative whose aim is to engage the public in the online transcription of Bentham's unstudied manuscripts. Manuscripts can be viewed and transcribed by signing-up for an MediaWiki account in Transcription Desk30 via the Transcribe Bentham website.31 See also List of liberal theorists Liberalism Philosophy of happiness Rule of law Rule according to higher law References For his advocacy of animal rights see the following: Sunstein Cass R. "Introduction: What are Animal Rights" in Sunstein Cass R. and Nussbaum Martha (ed.). Animal rights. Oxford University Press 2005 pp. 34. Francione Gary. AnimalsProperty or Persons" in Sunstein and Nussbaum 2005 p. 139 footnote 78. Gruen Lori. "The Moral Status of Animals" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy July 1 2003. Benthall Jonathan. "Animal liberation and rights" Anthropology Today volume 23 issue 2 April 2007 p. 1. Bentham Jeremy. "Offences Against One's Self" first published in Journal of Homosexuality v.3:4(1978) p.389-405; continued in v.4:1(1978). Also see Boralevi Lea Campos. Bentham and the Oppressed. Walter de Gruyter 1984 p. 37. Bedau Hugo Adam. "Bentham's Utilitarian Critique of the Death Penalty" The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. Vol 74 1983 p. 1033. doi 10.2307/1143143 Harrison Ross. "Jeremy Bentham" in Honderich Ted. (ed.) The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Oxford University Press 1995 pp. 8588. Also see Sweet William. "Jeremy Bentham" The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy April 11 2001 accessed 7 January 2011. "Jeremy Bentham". University College London. Archived from the original on 2007-01-01. http://web.archive.org/web/20070101105009/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/jb.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-04.  Declaring Independence: The Origin and Influence of America's Founding Document. Edited by Christian Y. Dupont and Peter S. Onuf. University of Virginia Library (Charlottesville VA: 2008) pp. 32-33. ISBN 978-0-9799997-0-3. "Short Review of the Declaration" (1776) as found in The Declaration of Independence: A Global History by David Armitage See page 85 of Muy interesante (No. 2 2008) a Mexican journal for the diffusion of science published by Editorial Televisa Internacional (ISSN 0188-0659. Everett 1966 pp. 6769 Bentham Jeremy Philip Schofield Catherine Pease-Watkin and Cyprian Blamires. Rights Representation and Reform: Nonsense upon Stilts and Other Writings on the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford UP 2002. Pg. 291. Joseph Hamburger Intellectuals in politics: John Stuart Mill and the Philosophical Radicals (Yale University Press 1965); William Thomas The philosophic radicals: nine studies in theory and practice 1817-1841 (Oxford 1979) Everett 1968 p. 94 St. John Packe Michael. The Life of John Stuart Mill. 1952 p. 16. Bentham Jeremy. The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) Ch I p. 1. Bentham Jeremy. The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) Ch IV Postema Gerald J. Bentham and the Common Law Tradition p. 148. Kelly P.J. Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice: Jeremy Bentham and the Civil Law. p. 81. Spiegel (1991). "The growth of Economic Thought" Ed.3. Duke University. ISBN 0-8223-0973-4. p. 341-343. Bentham Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation 1789. Latest edition: Adamant Media Corporation 2005. Benthall Jonathan. "Animal liberation and rights" Anthropology Today volume 23 issue 2 April 2007 p. 1. Bentham Jeremy. Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation second edition 1823 chapter 17 footnote. Miriam Williford Bentham on the rights of Women Boralevi Bentham and the Oppressed. p. 40 Boralevi Bentham and the Oppressed. p. 37 C.F.A. Marmoy "The 'Auto-Icon' of Jeremy Bentham at University College London". University College London. Archived from the original on 2007-02-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070210065136/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/marmoy.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-03.  "It seems that the case with Bentham's body now rested in New Broad Street; Southwood Smith did not remove to 38 Finsbury Square until several years later. Bentham must have been seen by many visitors including Charles Dickens." "History-Chemical History of UCL-The Autoicon". University College London. http://www.chem.ucl.ac.uk/resources/history/chemhistucl/hist03.html. Retrieved 2007-07-06.  "UCL Bentham Project". University College London. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/Faqs/autoicon.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-11. dead link Bentham Jeremy. Jan 2008. Gulphs in Mankinds Career of Prosperity: A Critique of Adam Smith on Interest Rate Restrictions. Econ Journal Watch 5(1): 66-77. 1 The Bentham Project http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/TranscribeBentham Transcribe Bentham Further reading Lea Campos Boralevi (1980). 'Bentham and the Oppressed'. Walter De Gruyter Inc 1984 ISBN 3-11-009974-8 Burns J. H. (1989). "Bentham and Blackstone: A Lifetime's Dialectic". Utilitas 1: 22. doi:10.1017/S0953820800000042.  John Dinwiddy (1989) Bentham Oxford University Press. ISBN 0 19 287622 8. Everett Charles W. (1966) Jeremy Bentham London Weidenfeld and Nicholson  J. A. W. Gunn (1989). 'Jeremy Bentham and the Public Interest'. In J. Lively & A. Reeve (eds.) 'Modern Political Theory from Hobbes to Marx: Key Debates London pp. 199219 Jonathan Harris (1998)'Bernardino Rivadavia and Benthamite "discipleship"' Latin American Research Review 33 pp. 12949 R. Harrison (1983) Bentham. London. P. J. Kelly (1990). Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice: Jeremy Bentham and the Civil Law. Oxford. F. Rosen (1983). Jeremy Bentham and Representative Democracy: A Study of the "Constitutional Code". Oxford. F. Rosen (1990) 'The Origins of Liberal Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and Liberty'. In R. Bellamy ed. Victorian Liberalism: Nineteenth-century Political Thought and Practice London pp. 5870 Robinson Dave & Groves Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jeremy Bentham Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jeremy Bentham Wikisource has original works written by or about: Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham "Critique of the Doctrine of Inalienable Natural Rights" in Anarchical Fallacies vol. 2 of Bowring (ed.) Works 1843. Jeremy Bentham "Offences Against One's Self: Paederasty" c. 1785 free audiobook from LibriVox. The Bentham Project at University College London. Includes a history and a FAQ on the Auto-Icon and details of Bentham's will. Transcribe Bentham initiative run by the Bentham Project has its own website with useful links Bentham Index a rich bibliographical resource Jeremy Bentham categorised links Jeremy Bentham's Life and Impact Benthamism - Catholic Encyclopedia article The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy has an extensive biographical reference of Bentham. Utilitarianism as Secondary Ethic A concise review of Utilitarianism its proponents and critics. "Jeremy Bentham at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe 2007" A play-reading of the life and legacy of Jeremy Bentham. Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation Jeremy Bentham at the Open Directory Project Works Online Library of Liberty - Jeremy Bentham partially including Bowring's (1843) The Works of Jeremy Bentham and additional titles Jeremy Bentham. 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Concepts in law Justice  Legal system  Judicial interpretation  Rational-legal authority  Rights Theories of law Analytical jurisprudence  Deontological ethics  Legal moralism  Legal positivism  Legal realism  Libertarian theories of law  Maternalism  Natural law  Paternalism  Utilitarianism  Virtue jurisprudence Philosophers of law Alexy  Allan  Amar  Aquinas  Aristotle  Austin  Beccaria  Bentham  Betti  Bickel  Blackstone  Bobbio  Bork  Castanheira Neves  Chafee  Coleman  Del Vecchio  Derrida  Durkheim  Dworkin  Ehrlich  Feinberg  Feldman  Finnis  Fuller  Gardner  George  Green  Grisez  Grotius  Gurvitch  Habermas  Hand  Hart  Hayek  Hegel  Hohfeld  Holmes  Kant  Kelsen  Kchler  Kramer  Llewellyn  Luhmann  Lyons  MacCormick  Marx  Olivecrona  Petrazycki  Posner  Pound  Radbruch  Rawls  Raz  Reinach  Renner  Savigny  Scaevola  Schmitt  Simmonds  Tribe  Unger  Waldron  Weber Category  Portals: (Law  Philosophy)  WikiProjects: (Law  Philosophy)  Changes Persondata Name Bentham Jeremy Alternative names Short description English jurist philosopher and legal and social reformer Date of birth 15 February 1748 O.S. (26 February 1748 N.S.) Place of birth Spitalfields London Date of death 6 June 1832 Place of death London