"Stalin" redirects here. For other uses see Stalin (disambiguation). Generalissimus  Joseph Stalin Russian: Georgian: Stalin at the Potsdam Conference July 1945. Chairman of the Council of Ministers In office 6 May 1941  5 March 1953 First Deputies Nikolai Voznesensky Vyacheslav Molotov Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov Succeeded by Georgy Malenkov General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union In office 3 April 1922  16 October 1952 Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov (as Responsible Secretary) Succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev (office reestablished) People's Commissar for the Defense of the Soviet Union In office 19 July 1941  25 February 1946 Premier Himself Preceded by Semyon Timoshenko Succeeded by Nikolai Bulganin after vacancy Born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili

(Georgian: ) 18 December 1878(1878-12-18) Gori Tiflis Governorate Russian Empire Died 5 March 1953(1953-03-05) (aged 74) (stroke) Kuntsevo Dacha near Moscow Russian SFSR Soviet Union Nationality Soviet Ethnicity Georgian Political party Communist Party of the Soviet Union Spouse(s) Ekaterina Svanidze (19061907) Nadezhda Alliluyeva (19191932) Children Yakov Dzhugashvili Vasily Dzhugashvili Svetlana Alliluyeva Konstantin Kuzakov(disputed) Signature Military service Allegiance Soviet Union Years of service 19431953 Rank Marshal of the Soviet Union (1943-1945) Generalissimus of the Soviet Union (1943-1953) Commands All (supreme commander) Battles/wars World War II

Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (18 December 18781  5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While formally the office of the General Secretary was elective and was not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state after Vladimir Lenin's death in 1924 Stalin managed to consolidate more and more power in his hands gradually putting down all opposition groups within the party. This included Leon Trotsky the Red Army organizer proponent of world revolution and principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Instead Stalin's idea of socialism in one country became the primary line of the Soviet politics.

In 1928 Stalin replaced the New Economic Policy of the 1920s with a highly centralised command economy and Five-Year Plans launching a period of rapid industrialization and economic collectivization in the countryside. As a result the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian society into a great industrial power and the basis was provided for its emergence as the world's second largest economy after World War II.2 However during this period of rapid economic and social changes millions of people were sent to penal labor camps3 including many political convicts and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.3 The initial upheaval in the changing agricultural sector disrupted food production in the early 1930s contributing to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 19321933 one of the last major famines in Russia. In 193738 a campaign against former members of the communist opposition potential rivals in the party and other alleged enemies of the regime culminated in the Great Purge a period of mass repression in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed including Red Army leaders convicted in coup d'tat plots.4

In August 1939 after the failure to establish an Anglo-Franco-Soviet Alliance5 Stalin's USSR entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany dividing their spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. This pact allowed the Soviet Union to regain some of the former territories of the Russian Empire in Poland Finland the Baltics Bessarabia and northern Bukovina during the early period of World War II. After Germany violated the pact by invading the Soviet Union in 1941 and thus opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history the Soviet Union joined the Allies. Despite heavy human and territorial losses in the initial period of war the Soviet Union managed to stop the Axis advance in the battles of Moscow and Stalingrad. Eventually the Red Army drove through Eastern Europe in 194445 and captured Berlin in May 1945. Having played the decisive role in the Allied victory67 the USSR emerged a recognized superpower after the war.8

Stalin headed the Soviet delegations at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences which defined the map of post-war Europe. Communist-dominated leftist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states as the USSR entered a struggle for global dominance known as the Cold War with the United States and NATO. In Asia Stalin established good relations with Mao Zedong and Kim Il-sung and the Stalin-era Soviet Union in various ways served as a model for the newly-formed People's Republic of China and Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea).

In power until his death in 1953 Stalin led the USSR during the period of post-war reconstruction marked by the dominance of Stalinist architecture (most famously represented by the Stalin skyscrapers). The successful development of the Soviet nuclear program enabled the country to become the world's second nuclear weapons power; the Soviet space program was started as spin-off of the nuclear project. In his last years Stalin also launched the so-called Great Construction Projects of Communism and the Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature.

Following his death Stalin and his regime have both been questioned on numerous occasions the most significant of these being the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956 when Stalin's successor Nikita Khrushchev denounced his legacy and drove the process of de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union. Modern views of Stalin in the Russian Federation remain mixed with some viewing him as a tyrant9 while others consider him a capable leader.10 Contents 1 Early life 2 Revolution Civil War and Polish-Soviet War 2.1 Role during the Russian Revolution of 1917 2.2 Role in the Russian Civil War 19171919 2.3 Role in the Polish-Soviet War 19191921 3 Rise to power 4 Changes to Soviet society 19271939 4.1 Bolstering Soviet secret service and intelligence 4.2 Cult of personality 4.3 Purges and deportations 4.3.1 Purges and executions 4.3.2 Population transfer 4.4 Collectivization 4.5 Famines 4.5.1 Ukrainian famine 4.6 Industrialization 4.7 Science 4.8 Social services 4.9 Culture 4.10 Religion 4.11 Theorist 5 Calculating the number of victims 6 World War II 19391945 6.1 Pact with Hitler 6.2 Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions 6.3 Hitler breaks the pact 6.4 Soviets stop the Germans 6.5 Soviet push to Germany 6.6 Final victory 6.7 Nobel Peace Prize nominations 6.8 Questionable tactics 6.9 Allied conferences on post-war Europe 7 Post-war era 19451953 7.1 The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc 7.2 Sino-Soviet Relations 7.3 North Korea 7.4 Israel 7.5 Falsifiers of History 7.6 Domestic support 7.7 "Doctors' plot" 8 Death and aftermath 8.1 Later analysis of death 8.2 Reaction by successors 8.3 Views on Stalin in the Russian Federation 9 Personal life 9.1 Origin of name nicknames and pseudonyms 9.2 Appearance 9.3 Marriages and family 9.4 Habits 9.5 Attitude to religion 10 Hypotheses rumors and misconceptions about Stalin 11 Works 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Notes 13.2 Bibliography 14 Further reading 15 External links Early life Main article: Early life of Joseph Stalin Young Stalin circa 1894 age 16 and Ioseb in his mid-twenties c. 1902.

Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (Georgian: ) on 18 December 18781 to Ketevan Geladze and Besarion Jughashvili a cobbler in the town of Gori Georgia. At the age of seven he contracted smallpox which permanently scarred his face. At ten he began attending church school where the Georgian children were forced to speak Russian. By the age of twelve two horse-drawn carriage accidents left his left arm permanently damaged. At sixteen he received a scholarship to a Georgian Orthodox seminary where he rebelled against the imperialist and religious order. Though he performed well there he was expelled in 1899 after missing his final exams. The seminary's records suggest he was unable to pay his tuition fees.11 The official Soviet version states that he was expelled for reading illegal literature and forming a Social Democratic study circle.12

Shortly after leaving the seminary Stalin discovered the writings of Vladimir Lenin and decided to become a Marxist revolutionary eventually joining Lenin's Bolsheviks in 1903. After being marked by the Okhranka (the Tsar's secret police) for his activities he became a full-time revolutionary and outlaw. He became one of the Bolsheviks' chief operatives in the Caucasus organizing paramilitaries inciting strikes spreading propaganda and raising money through bank robberies ransom kidnappings and extortion. In the summer of 1906 Stalin married Ekaterina Svanidze who later gave birth to Stalin's first child Yakov. A year later she died of typhus in Baku. Stalin was captured and sent to Siberia seven times but escaped most of these exiles. He eventually adopted the name "Stalin" from the Russian word for steel which he used as an alias and pen name in his published works. During his last exile Stalin was conscripted by the Russian army to fight in World War I but was deemed unfit for service because of his damaged left arm.13 Revolution Civil War and Polish-Soviet War Main article: Joseph Stalin in the Russian Revolution Russian Civil War and Polish-Soviet War Role during the Russian Revolution of 1917 Prior to revolution Stalin played an active role in fighting the tsarist government. Here he is shown on a 1911 information card from the files of the Tsarist secret police in Saint Petersburg.14page needed After returning to Saint Petersburg from exile Stalin ousted Vyacheslav Molotov and Alexander Shlyapnikov as editors of Pravda. He then took a position in favor of supporting Alexander Kerensky's provisional government. However after Lenin prevailed at the April 1917 Party conference Stalin and Pravda supported overthrowing the provisional government. At this conference Stalin was elected to the Bolshevik Central Committee. After Kerensky ordered the arrest of Lenin following the July Days Stalin helped Lenin evade capture.14page needed After the jailed Bolsheviks were freed to help defend Saint Petersburg in October 1917 the Bolshevik Central Committee voted in favor of an insurrection. On 7 November from the Smolny Institute Stalin Lenin and the rest of the Central Committee coordinated the insurrection against Kerensky in the 1917 October Revolution. By 8 November the Bolsheviks had stormed the Winter Palace and Kerensky's Cabinet had been arrested. Role in the Russian Civil War 19171919 A group of participants in the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party 1919. In the middle are Stalin Vladimir Lenin and Mikhail Kalinin. Upon seizing Petrograd Stalin was appointed People's Commissar for Nationalities' Affairs. Thereafter civil war broke out in Russia pitting Lenin's Red Army against the White Army a loose alliance of anti-Bolshevik forces. Lenin formed a five-member Politburo which included Stalin and Trotsky. In May 1918 Lenin dispatched Stalin to the city of Tsaritsyn. Through his new allies Kliment Voroshilov and Semyon Budyonny Stalin imposed his influence on the military.citation needed Stalin challenged many of the decisions of Trotsky ordered the killings of many former Tsarist officers in the Red Army and counter-revolutionariescitation needed and burned villages in order to intimidate the peasantry into submission and discourage bandit raids on food shipments.citation needed In May 1919 in order to stem mass desertions on the Western front Stalin had deserters and renegades publicly executed as traitors.15 Role in the Polish-Soviet War 19191921 After their Russian Civil War victory the Bolsheviks moved to establish a sphere of influence in Central Europe starting with what became the PolishSoviet War. As commander of the southern front Stalin was determined to take the Polish-held city of Lviv. This conflicted with general strategy set by Lenin and Trotsky which focused upon the capture of Warsaw further north. Trotsky's forces engaged with those of Polish commander Wadysaw Sikorski at the Battle of Warsaw but Stalin refused to redirect his troops from Lviv to help. Consequently the battles for both Lviv and Warsaw were lost for which Stalin was blamed. Stalin returned to Moscow in August 1920 where he defended himself and resigned his military commission. At the Ninth Party Conference on 22 September Trotsky openly criticized Stalin's behavior. Rise to power Main article: Rise of Joseph Stalin Stalin played a decisive role in engineering the 1921 Red Army invasion of Georgia following which he adopted particularly hardline centralist policies towards Soviet Georgia which included the Georgian Affair of 1922 and other repressions.1617 This created a rift with Lenin who believed that all the Soviet states should stand equal. Lenin still considered Stalin to be a loyal ally and when he got mired in squabbles with Trotsky and other politicians he decided to give Stalin more power. With the help of Lev Kamenev Lenin had Stalin appointed as General Secretary in 1922.18 This post allowed Stalin to appoint many of his allies to government positions. Lenin suffered a stroke in 1922 forcing him into semi-retirement in Gorki. Stalin visited him often acting as his intermediary with the outside world.18 The pair quarreled and their relationship deteriorated.18 Lenin dictated increasingly disparaging notes on Stalin in what would become his testament. He criticized Stalin's rude manners excessive power ambition and politics and suggested that Stalin should be removed from the position of General Secretary.18 During Lenin's semi-retirement Stalin forged an alliance with Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev against Leon Trotsky. These allies prevented Lenin's Testament from being revealed to the Twelfth Party Congress in April 1923.18 Lenin died of a heart attack on 21 January 1924. Again Kamenev and Zinoviev helped to keep Lenin's Testament from going public. Thereafter Stalin's disputes with Lev Kamenev and Zinoviev intensified. Trotsky Kamenev and Zinoviev grew increasingly isolated and were eventually ejected from the Central Committee and then from the Party itself.18 Kamenev and Zinoviev were later readmitted but Trotsky was exiled from the Soviet Union. The Northern Expedition in China became a point of contention over foreign policy by Stalin and Trotsky. Stalin followed a practical policy ignoring communist ideology. He told the Chinese Communist Party to stop whining about the lower classes and follow the Kuomintang's orders. Stalin like Lenin believed that the KMT bourgeoisie would defeat the western imperialists in China and complete the revolution. Trotsky wanted the Communist party to complete an orthodox proletarian revolution and opposed the KMT. Stalin funded the KMT during the expedition.19 Stalin countered Trotsky's criticism by making a secret speech in which he said that Chiang's right wing Kuomintang were the only ones capable of defeating the imperialists that Chiang Kai-shek had funding from the rich merchants and that his forces were to be utilized until squeezed for all usefulness like a lemon before being discarded.citation needed However Chiang quickly reversed the tables in the Shanghai massacre of 1927 by massacring the Communist party in Shanghai midway in the Northern Expedition.2021 Stalin pushed for more rapid industrialization and central control of the economy contravening Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP). At the end of 1927 a critical shortfall in grain supplies prompted Stalin to push for collectivisation of agriculture and order the seizures of grain hoards from kulak farmers.1822 Bukharin and Premier Alexey Rykov opposed these policies and advocated a return to the NEP but the rest of the Politburo sided with Stalin and removed Bukharin from the Politburo in November 1929. Rykov was fired the following year and was replaced by Vyacheslav Molotov on Stalin's recommendation. In December 1934 the popular Sergei Kirov was murdered. Stalin blamed Kirov's murder on a vast conspiracy of saboteurs and Trotskyites. He launched a massive purge against these internal enemies putting them on rigged show trials and then having them executed or imprisoned in Siberian gulags. Among these victims were old enemies including Bukharin Rykov Kamenev and Zinoviev. Stalin made the loyal Nikolai Yezhov head of the secret police the NKVD and had him purge the NKVD of veteran Bolsheviks. With no serious opponents left in power Stalin ended the purges in 1938. Yezhov was held to blame for the excesses of the Great Terror and was dismissed and later executed. Changes to Soviet society 19271939 Bolstering Soviet secret service and intelligence Main article: Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies Part of the Politics series on Stalinism Concepts Marxism-Leninism  Socialism in One Country  Aggravation of class struggle under socialism  Great Turn  Collectivization  Cult of personality Stalinist figures  Joseph Stalin   Enver Hoxha   Nicolae Ceauescu   Mtys Rkosi   Bolesaw Bierut   Kim Il-sung   Gennady Zyuganov Parties Communist Party of the Soviet Union  Communist Party of the Russian Federation  Albanian Party of Labour  Communist Party of Indonesia  Communist Party of Vietnam  Communist Party of Romania  Communist Party of New Zealand  Stalin Bloc For the USSR  National Bolshevik Party  Communist Party of Great Britain (MarxistLeninist) Related topics Stalin Society  Stalinist architecture  Stalin and Anti-Semitism  Great Purge  Totalitarianism  Anti-Revisionism  Neo-Stalinism  Maoism  National communism  Patriotism  De-Stalinization  Anti-Stalinist left   Communism Portal Politics portal v d e Stalin vastly increased the scope and power of the state's secret police and intelligence agencies. Under his guiding hand Soviet intelligence forces began to set up intelligence networks in most of the major nations of the world including Germany (the famous Rote Kappelle spy ring) Great Britain France Japan and the United States. Stalin made considerable use of the Communist International movement in order to infiltrate agents and to ensure that foreign Communist parties remained pro-Soviet and pro-Stalin. One of the best examples of Stalin's ability to integrate secret police and foreign espionage came in 1940 when he gave approval to the secret police to have Leon Trotsky assassinated in Mexico.23 Cult of personality Stalin created a cult of personality in the Soviet Union around both himself and Lenin. Many personality cults in history have been frequently measured and compared to his. Numerous towns villages and cities were renamed after the Soviet leader (see List of places named after Stalin) and the Stalin Prize and Stalin Peace Prize were named in his honor. He accepted grandiloquent titles (e.g. "Coryphaeus of Science" "Father of Nations" "Brilliant Genius of Humanity" "Great Architect of Communism" "Gardener of Human Happiness" and others) and helped rewrite Soviet history to provide himself a more significant role in the revolution. At the same time according to Nikita Khrushchev he insisted that he be remembered for "the extraordinary modesty characteristic of truly great people." Statues of Stalin depict him at a height and build approximating Alexander IIIclarification needed while photographic evidence suggests he was between 5 ft 5 in and 5 ft 6 in (165168 cm).24 Trotsky criticized the cult of personality built around Stalin. It reached new levels during World War II with Stalin's name included in the new Soviet national anthem. Stalin became the focus of literature poetry music paintings and film exhibiting fawning devotion crediting Stalin with almost god-like qualities and suggesting he single-handedly won the Second World War. It is debatable as to how much Stalin relished the cult surrounding him. The Finnish communist Arvo Tuominen records a sarcastic toast proposed by Stalin at a New Year Party in 1935 in which he said "Comrades! I want to propose a toast to our patriarch life and sun liberator of nations architect of socialism he rattled off all the appellations applied to him in those days  Josef Vissarionovich Stalin and I hope this is the first and last speech made to that genius this evening."25 In a 1956 speech Nikita Khrushchev gave a denunciation of Stalin's actions: "It is impermissible and foreign to the spirit of Marxism-Leninism to elevate one person to transform him into a superman possessing supernatural characteristics akin to those of a god."citation needed Purges and deportations Purges and executions Main article: Great Purge Left: Beria's January 1940 letter to Stalin asking permission to execute 346 "enemies of the CPSU and of the Soviet authorities" who conducted "counter-revolutionary right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities" Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "" (support). Right: The Politburo's decision is signed by Secretary Stalin Stalin as head of the Politburo consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party justified as an attempt to expel 'opportunists' and 'counter-revolutionary infiltrators'.2627 Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party; however more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labor camps to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas.262829 In the 1930s Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of Sergei Kirov. At the 1934 Party Congress where the vote for the new Central Committee was held Kirov received only three negative votes the fewest of any candidate while Stalin received 1108 negative votes.30 After the assassination of Kirov which may have been orchestrated by Stalin Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder including Trotsky Kamenev and Zinoviev.31 The investigations and trials expanded.32 Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" which were to be investigated for no more than ten days with no prosecution defense attorneys or appeals followed by a sentence to be executed "quickly."33 Thereafter several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the legal code listing prohibited anti-Soviet activities as counterrevolutionary crime was applied in the broadest manner.34 The flimsiest pretexts were often enough to brand someone an "enemy of the people" starting the cycle of public persecution and abuse often proceeding to interrogation torture and deportation if not death. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning: a quick simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to NKVD -NKVD troika- with sentencing carried out within 24 hours.33 Stalin's hand picked executioner Vasili Blokhin was entrusted with carrying out some of the high profile executions in this period.35 Nikolai Yezhov walking with Stalin in the top photo from the 1930s was killed in 1940. Following his execution Yezhov was edited out of the photo by Soviet censors.36 Such retouching was a common occurrence during Stalin's rule. Many military leaders were convicted of treason and a large scale purging of Red Army officers followed.37 The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin.38 In August 1940 Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico where he had lived in exile since January 1937; this eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.39 With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin (who died in prison in 1937) and Joseph Stalin himself all of the members of Lenin's original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed. Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as Poles ethnic Germans Koreans etc. A total of 350000 (144000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247157 (110000 Poles) were executed.22 Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the Great Depression were executed; others were sent to prison camps or gulags.40 Concurrent with the purges efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they never existed. Gradually the history of revolution was transformed to a story about just two key characters: Lenin and Stalin. In light of revelations from the Soviet archives historians now estimate that nearly 700000 people (353074 in 1937 and 328612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror41 with the great mass of victims being "ordinary" Soviet citizens: workers peasants homemakers teachers priests musicians soldiers pensioners ballerinas beggars.4243 Many of the executed were interred in mass graves with some of the major killing and burial sites being Bykivnia Kurapaty and Butovo.44 Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated incomplete or unreliable.4546474849 Stalin personally signed 357 proscription lists in 1937 and 1938 which condemned to execution some 40000 people and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot.50 At the time while reviewing one such list Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time No one. Who remembers the names now of the boyars Ivan the Terrible got rid of No one."51 In addition Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika and unleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as 'Japanese Spies.' Mongolian ruler Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead.52 During the 1930s and 40s the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and other opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Yevhen Konovalets Ignace Poretsky Rudolf Klement Alexander Kutepov Evgeny Miller Leon Trotsky and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) leadership in Catalonia (e.g. Andreu Nin).53 Population transfer Main article: Population transfer in the Soviet Union Shortly before during and immediately after World War II Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3.3 million5455 were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition.56 Separatism resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were cited as the official reasons for the deportations rightly or wrongly. Individual circumstances of those spending time in German-occupied territories were not examined.57 After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the Crimean Tatars  more than a million people in total   were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions.57 As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities such ethnic groups as the Soviet Koreans the Volga Germans the Crimean Tatars the Chechens and many Poles were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union especially Kazakhstan in Soviet Central Asia. By some estimates hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route.54 According to official Soviet estimates more than 14 million people passed through the Gulag from 1929 to 1953 with a further 7 to 8 million being deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including the entire nationalities in several cases).58 In February 1956 Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism and reversed most of them although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars Meskhetians and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands. The deportations had a profound effect on the peoples of the Soviet Union. The memory of the deportations played a major part in the separatist movements in the Baltic States Tatarstan and Chechnya even today. Collectivization Main article: Collectivization in the Soviet Union Stalin's regime moved to force collectivization of agriculture. This was intended to increase agricultural output from large-scale mechanized farms to bring the peasantry under more direct political control and to make tax collection more efficient. Collectivization meant drastic social changes on a scale not seen since the abolition of serfdom in 1861 and alienation from control of the land and its produce. Collectivization also meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants and it faced violent reaction among the peasantry. In the first years of collectivization it was estimated that industrial production would rise by 200% and agricultural production by 50%59 but these estimates were not met. Stalin blamed this unanticipated failure on kulaks (rich peasants) who resisted collectivization. (However kulaks proper made up only 4% of the peasant population; the "kulaks" that Stalin targeted included the slightly better-off peasants who took the brunt of violence from the OGPU and the Komsomol. These peasants were about 60% of the population). Those officially defined as "kulaks" "kulak helpers" and later "ex-kulaks" were to be shot placed into Gulag labor camps or deported to remote areas of the country depending on the charge. Archival data indicates that 20201 people were executed during 1930 the year of Dekulakization.52 The two-stage progress of collectivizationinterrupted for a year by Stalin's famous editorials "Dizzy with success"60 and "Reply to Collective Farm Comrades"61is a prime example of his capacity for tactical political withdrawal followed by intensification of initial strategies. Famines Famine affected other parts of the USSR. The death toll from famine in the Soviet Union at this time is estimated at between five and ten million people.62 The worst crop failure of late tsarist Russia in 1892 had caused 375000 to 400000 deaths.63 Most modern scholars agree that the famine was caused by the policies of the government of the Soviet Union under Stalin rather than by natural reasons.64 According to Alan Bullock "the total Soviet grain crop was no worse than that of 1931 ... it was not a crop failure but the excessive demands of the state ruthlessly enforced that cost the lives of as many as five million Ukrainian peasants." Stalin refused to release large grain reserves that could have alleviated the famine while continuing to export grain; he was convinced that the Ukrainian peasants had hidden grain away and strictly enforced draconian new collective-farm theft laws in response.6566 Other historians hold it was largely the insufficient harvests of 1931 and 1932 caused by a variety of natural disasters that resulted in famine with the successful harvest of 1933 ending the famine.67 Soviet and other historians have argued that the rapid collectivization of agriculture was necessary in order to achieve an equally rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union and ultimately win World War II. Alec Nove claims that the Soviet Union industrialized in spite of rather than because of its collectivized agriculture.citation needed The USSR also experienced a major famine in 1947 as a result of war damage and severe droughts but economist Michael Ellman argues that it could have been prevented if the government did not mismanage its grain reserves. The famine cost an estimated 1 to 1.5 million lives as well as secondary population losses due to reduced fertility.68 Ukrainian famine Main article: Holodomor The Holodomor famine is sometimes referred to as the Ukrainian Genocide implying it was engineered by the Soviet government specifically targeting the Ukrainian people to destroy the Ukrainian nation as a political factor and social entity.69 While historians continue to disagree whether the policies that led to Holodomor fall under the legal definition of genocide twenty six countries have officially recognized the Holodomor as such. On 28 November 2006 the Ukrainian Parliament approved a bill according to which the Soviet-era forced famine was an act of genocide against the Ukrainian people.70 Professor Michael Ellman concludes that Ukrainians were victims of genocide in 193233 according to a more relaxed definition which is favored by some specialists in the field of genocide studies. He asserts that Soviet policies greatly exacerbated the famine's death toll (such as the use of torture and execution to extract grain (see Law of Spikelets) with 1.8 million tonnes of it being exported during the height of the starvationenough to feed 5 million people for one year the use of force to prevent starving peasants from fleeing the worst affected areas and the refusal to import grain or secure international humanitarian aid to alleviate the suffering) and that Stalin intended to use the starvation as a cheap and efficient means (as opposed to deportations and shootings) to kill off those deemed to be "counterrevolutionaries" "idlers" and "thieves" but not to annihilate the Ukrainian peasantry as a whole. He also claims that while this is not the only Soviet genocide (e.g. The Polish operation of the NKVD) it is the worst in terms of mass casualties.50 Current estimates on the total number of casualties within Soviet Ukraine range mostly from 2.2 million7172 to 4 to 5 million.737475 A Ukrainian court found Josef Stalin and other leaders of the former Soviet Union guilty of genocide by "organizing mass famine in Ukraine in 19321933" in January 2010. However the court "dropped criminal proceedings over the suspects' deaths".7677 Industrialization The Russian Civil War and wartime communism had a devastating effect on the country's economy. Industrial output in 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. A recovery followed under the New Economic Policy which allowed a degree of market flexibility within the context of socialism. Under Stalin's direction this was replaced by a system of centrally ordained "Five-Year Plans" in the late 1920s. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crash industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture. With seed capital unavailable because of international reaction to Communist policies little international trade and virtually no modern infrastructure Stalin's government financed industrialization both by restraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens to ensure that capital went for re-investment into industry and by ruthless extraction of wealth from the kulaks. In 1933 workers' real earnings sank to about one-tenth of the 1926 level.citation needed Common and political prisoners in labor camps were forced to do unpaid labor and communists and Komsomol members were frequently "mobilized" for various construction projects. The Soviet Union used numerous foreign experts to design new factories supervise construction instruct workers and improve manufacturing processes. The most notable foreign contractor was Albert Kahn's firm that designed and built 521 factories between 1930 and 1932. As a rule factories were supplied with imported equipment. In spite of early breakdowns and failures the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialization from a very low economic base. While it is generally agreed that the Soviet Union achieved significant levels of economic growth under Stalin the precise rate of growth is disputed. It is not disputed however that these gains were accomplished at the cost of millions of lives. Official Soviet estimates stated the annual rate of growth at 13.9%; Russian and Western estimates gave lower figures of 5.8% and even 2.9%. Indeed one estimate is that Soviet growth became temporarily much higher after Stalin's death.78 According to Robert Lewis the Five-Year Plan substantially helped to modernize the previously backward Soviet economy. New products were developed and the scale and efficiency of existing production greatly increased. Some innovations were based on indigenous technical developments others on imported foreign technology.79 Despite its costs the industrialization effort allowed the Soviet Union to fight and ultimately win World War II. Science Main articles: Science and technology in the Soviet Union and Suppressed research in the Soviet Union Science in the Soviet Union was under strict ideological control by Stalin and his government along with art and literature. There was significant progress in "ideologically safe" domains owing to the free Soviet education system and state-financed research. However the most notable legacy during Stalin's time was his public endorsement of the Agronomist Trofim Lysenko who rejected Mendelian genetics as "bourgeois pseudosciences" and instead supported Hybridization theories that caused widespread agricultural destruction and major setbacks in Soviet knowledge in biology. Although many scientists opposed his views those who publicly came out were imprisoned and denounced. Some areas of physics were criticized.8081 Social services Under the Soviet government people benefited from some social liberalization. Girls were given an adequate equal education and women had equal rights in employment22page needed improving lives for women and families. Stalinist development also contributed to advances in health care which significantly increased the lifespan and quality of life of the typical Soviet citizen.22page needed Stalin's policies granted the Soviet people universal access to healthcare and education effectively creating the first generation free from the fear of typhus cholera and malaria.82page needed The occurrences of these diseases dropped to record low numbers increasing life spans by decades.82page needed Soviet women under Stalin were the first generation of women able to give birth in the safety of a hospital with access to prenatal care.82page needed Education was also an example of an increase in standard of living after economic development. The generation born during Stalin's rule was the first near-universally literate generation. Millions benefitted from mass literacy campaigns in the 1930s and from workers training schemes.83page needed Engineers were sent abroad to learn industrial technology and hundreds of foreign engineers were brought to Russia on contract.82page needed Transport links were improved and many new railways built. Workers who exceeded their quotas Stakhanovites received many incentives for their work;83page needed they could afford to buy the goods that were mass-produced by the rapidly expanding Soviet economy. The increase in demand due to industrialization and the decrease in the workforce due to World War II and repressions generated a major expansion in job opportunities for the survivors especially for women.83page needed Culture Main article: Socialist Realism Although he was Georgian by birth Stalin became a Russian nationalist and significantly promoted Russian history language and Russian national heroes particularly during the 1930s and 1940s. He held the Russians up as the elder brothers of the non-Russian minorities.84 During Stalin's reign the official and long-lived style of Socialist Realism was established for painting sculpture music drama and literature. Previously fashionable "revolutionary" expressionism abstract art and avant-garde experimentation were discouraged or denounced as "formalism". The degree of Stalin's personal involvement in general and in specific instances has been the subject of discussion.citation needed Stalin's favorite novel Pharaoh shared similaritiescitation needed with Sergei Eisenstein's film Ivan the Terrible produced under Stalin's tutelage. In architecture a Stalinist Empire Style (basically updated neoclassicism on a very large scale exemplified by the Seven Sisters of Moscow) replaced the constructivism of the 1920s. Stalin's rule had a largely disruptive effect on indigenous cultures within the Soviet Union though the politics of Korenizatsiya and forced development were possibly beneficial to the integration of later generations of indigenous cultures. Religion Main article: Religion in the Soviet Union Stalin followed the position adopted by Lenin that religion was an opiate that needed to be removed in order to construct the ideal communist society. To this end his government promoted atheism through special atheistic education in schools massive amounts of anti-religious propaganda the antireligious work of public institutions (especially the Society of the Godless) discriminatory laws and also a terror campaign against religious believers. By the late 1930s it had become dangerous to be publicly associated with religion.85 Stalin's role in the fortunes of the Russian Orthodox Church is complex. Continuous persecution in the 1930s resulted in its near-extinction as a public institution: by 1939 active parishes numbered in the low hundreds (down from 54000 in 1917) many churches had been leveled and tens of thousands of priests monks and nuns were persecuted and killed. Over 100000 were shot during the purges of 19371938.86 During World War II the Church was allowed a revival as a patriotic organization and thousands of parishes were reactivated until a further round of suppression in Khrushchev's time. The Russian Orthodox Church Synod's recognition of the Soviet government and of Stalin personally led to a schism with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. Just days before Stalin's death certain religious sects were outlawed and persecuted. Many religions popular in the ethnic regions of the Soviet Union including the Roman Catholic Church (including the Eastern Catholic Churches) Baptists Islam Buddhism Judaism etc. underwent ordeals similar to the Orthodox churches in other parts: thousands of monks were persecuted and hundreds of churches synagogues mosques temples sacred monuments monasteries and other religious buildings were razed. Theorist Main article: Stalinism Stalin and his supporters have highlighted the notion that socialism can be built and consolidated by a country as underdeveloped as Russia during the 1920s. Indeed this might be the only means in which it could be built in a hostile environment.87 In 1933 Stalin put forward the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism arguing that the further the country would move forward the more acute forms of struggle will be used by the doomed remnants of exploiter classes in their last desperate efforts  and that therefore political repression was necessary. In 1936 Stalin announced that the society of the Soviet Union consisted of two non-antagonistic classes: workers and kolkhoz peasantry. These corresponded to the two different forms of property over the means of production that existed in the Soviet Union: state property (for the workers) and collective property (for the peasantry). In addition to these Stalin distinguished the stratum of intelligentsia. The concept of "non-antagonistic classes" was entirely new to Leninist theory. Among Stalin's contributions to Communist theoretical literature were "Dialectical and Historical Materialism" "Marxism and the National Question" "Trotskyism or Leninism" and "The Principles of Leninism." Calculating the number of victims Researchers before the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union attempting to count the number of people killed under Stalin's regime produced estimates ranging from 3 to 60 million.88 After the Soviet Union dissolved evidence from the Soviet archives also became available containing official records of the execution of approximately 800000 prisoners under Stalin for either political or criminal offenses around 1.7 million deaths in the Gulags and some 390000 deaths during kulak forced resettlement  for a total of about 3 million officially recorded victims in these categories.89 The official Soviet archival records do not contain comprehensive figures for some categories of victims such as the those of ethnic deportations or of German population transfers in the aftermath of World War II.90 Eric D. Weitz wrote "By 1948 according to Nicolas Werth the mortality rate of the 600000 people deported from the Caucasus between 1943 and 1944 had reached 25%."9192 Other notable exclusions from NKVD data on repression deaths include the Katyn massacre other killings in the newly occupied areas and the mass shootings of Red Army personnel (deserters and so-called deserters) in 1941. The Soviets executed 158000 soldiers for desertion during the war93 and the "blocking detachments" of the NKVD shot thousands more.94 Also the official statistics on Gulag mortality exclude deaths of prisoners taking place shortly after their release but which resulted from the harsh treatment in the camps.95 Some historians also believe the official archival figures of the categories that were recorded by Soviet authorities to be unreliable and incomplete.96page needed97 In addition to failures regarding comprehensive recordings as one additional example Robert Gellately and Simon Sebag-Montefiore argue the many suspects beaten and tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely not to have been counted amongst the executed.2298 Historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 4 million to nearly 10 million not including those who died in famines.99 Russian writer Vadim Erlikman for example makes the following estimates: executions 1.5 million; gulags 5 million; deportations 1.7 million out of 7.5 million deported; and POWs and German civilians 1 million  a total of about 9 million victims of repression.100 Some have also included deaths of 6 to 8 million people in the 19321933 famine as victims of Stalin's repression. This categorization is controversial however as historians differ as to whether the famine was a deliberate part of the campaign of repression against kulaks and others50101102103104 or simply an unintended consequence of the struggle over forced collectivization.66105106 Accordingly if famine victims are included a minimum of around 10 million deaths6 million from famine and 4 million from other causesare attributable to the regime107 with a number of recent historians suggesting a likely total of around 20 million citing much higher victim totals from executions gulags deportations and other causes.108 Adding 68 million famine victims to Erlikman's estimates above for example would yield a total of between 15 and 17 million victims. Researcher Robert Conquest meanwhile has revised his original estimate of up to 30 million victims down to 20 million.109 In his most recent edition of The Great Terror (2007) Conquest states that while exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty the various terror campaigns launched by the Soviet government claimed no fewer than 15 million lives.110 Others maintain that their earlier higher victim total estimates are correct.111112 World War II 19391945 Main article: Soviet Union in World War II Ribbentrop and Stalin at the signing of the Pact Pact with Hitler After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German military alliance with France and Britain113114115 and talks with Germany regarding a potential political deal116117118119 on 23 August 1939 the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.120 Officially a non-aggression treaty only an appended secret protocol also reached on 23 August 1939 divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.121122 The eastern part of Poland Latvia Estonia Finland and part of Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence122 with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.123 Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the night of the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries.124 Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions On 1 September 1939 the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.120 On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.125126 Eleven days later the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified allotting Germany a larger part of Poland while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.127 Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 19391940 (click to enlarge) After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem" by June 1940 Lithuania Latvia and Estonia were merged into the Soviet Union after repressions and actions therein brought about the deaths of over 160000 citizens of these states.127128129130 After facing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland131 an interim peace was entered granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory).131 After this campaign Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.132 In June 1940 Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.133 But in annexing northern Bukovina Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.133 Stalin and Molotov on the signing of the SovietJapanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan 1941 After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany Japan and Italy in October 1940 Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop with Stalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."134 After a conference in Berlin between Hitler Molotov and Ribbentrop Germany presented the Molotov with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry.133135 On 25 November Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry which was never answered by Germany.136 Shortly thereafter Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.136 In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany on 13 April 1941 Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan.137 Hitler breaks the pact During the early morning of 22 June 1941 Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.138 Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals139140141142143 he felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.139 In the initial hours after the German attack commenced Stalin hesitated wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.22page needed Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that after the invasion Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.144 However some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts leading some historians to speculate that Khrushchev's account is inaccurate.145 By the end of 1941 the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties146 and German forces had advanced 1050 miles (1690 kilometers).147 Soviets stop the Germans While the Germans pressed forward Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941 Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that after the war the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the MolotovRibbentrop Pact.148 The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.148 By December Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow.149 On 5 December the Soviets launched a counteroffensive pushing German troops back 4050 miles from Moscow the Wehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.149 In 1942 Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.150 While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow.151 During the war Time magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Year twice152 and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.citation needed Soviet push to Germany The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.153 The Big Three: Stalin U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference November 1943. Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.154 Kursk marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.155 By the end of 1943 the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 19411942.155 Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front safe from German invasion and air attack.156 In November 1943 Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran.157 The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944 along with a separate invasion of southern France.158 Stalin insisted that after the war the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany which Churchill opposed.159 In 1944 the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany160 including Operation Bagration a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.161 Final victory By April 1945 Nazi Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.162 While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.163164 On 30 April Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide after which Soviet forces found their remains which had been burned at Hitler's directive.165 German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead a belief that remained for years after the war.166167 Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union.168 Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).169 Although figures vary the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.169 One in four Soviets were killed or wounded.170 Some 1710 towns and 70000 villages were destroyed.171172 Thereafter Stalin was at times referred to as one of the most influential men in human history.173174 Nobel Peace Prize nominations In 1945 he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Peace Prize. However he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.175 In 1948 he was officially nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by Wladislav Rieger.176 Questionable tactics Part of 5 March 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beria to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers After taking around 300000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940177178178179180 25700 Polish POWs were executed on 5 March 1940 pursuant to a note to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria181182 in what became known as the Katyn massacre.183181184 While Stalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officers in Manchuria185186187187 Polish railroad workers found the mass grave after the 1941 Nazi invasion.188 The massacre became a source of political controversy189190 with the Soviets eventually claiming that Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retook Poland in 1944.181191 The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.192 Stalin introduced controversial military orders such as Order No. 270 requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot193 while their family members were subject to arrest.194 Thereafter Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.194 Stalin issued Order No. 227 directing that commanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to a military tribunal195 and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be forced into "penal battalions" which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.195 From 1942 to 1945 427910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.196 The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.195 In June 1941 weeks after the German invasion began Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.145 He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand political prisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached197 while others were deported east.96page needed198 After the capture of Berlin Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women199page needed and 50000 during and after the occupation of Budapest.200201 In former Axis countries such as Germany Romania and Hungary Red Army officers generally viewed cities villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.202 In the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany the Soviets set up ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the gulag.203 These "special camps" were former Stalags prisons or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).204 According to German government estimates "65000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."205 According to recent figures of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Soviets including Germans Japanese Hungarians Romanians and others some 580000 never returned presumably victims of privation or the Gulags.206 Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps to determine which were potential traitors.207 Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2660013 were civilians and 1539475 were former POWs.207 Of the total 2427906 were sent home and 801152 were reconscripted into the armed forces.207 608095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry.207 272867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.207208209 89468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.207 Allied conferences on post-war Europe The Big Three: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference February 1945. Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Attlee) and/or American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and later to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in Moscow in 1942 focused mostly upon war planning and supply though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943 Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944 Stalin met with Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944 the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe. In February 1945 at the conference at Yalta Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern Europe.210 Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany.210 Stalin also stated that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939 and wanted the pro-Soviet Polish government installed.210 After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt Stalin promised a re-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland.210 He stated the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections.211 The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice" pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live."212 The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections."212 After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot."212 One month after Yalta the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations for alleged "crimes" and "diversions" which drew protest from the West.211 The fraudulent Polish elections held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Premiere Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference July 1945. At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945 though Germany had surrendered months earlier instead of withdrawing Soviet forces from Eastern European countries Stalin had not moved those forces. At the beginning of the conference Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.213 Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.214 In addition to reparations Stalin pushed for "war booty" which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.214 By July 1945 Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Bulgaria and Romania and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over. The western allies and especially Churchill were suspicious of the motives of Stalin who had already installed communist governments in the central European countries under his influence. In these conferences his first appearances on the world stage Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed he was seldom even irritated."215 Post-war era 19451953 The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes in those countries Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow.216217 The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were sometimes called the "Eastern bloc" or "Soviet Bloc". The Eastern Bloc until 1989 In Soviet-controlled East Germany the major task of the ruling communist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own218 with deviations potentially leading to reprimands imprisonment torture and even death.218 Property and industry were nationalized.218 The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949 with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the Soviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party ("SED") control. In Berlin after citizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election in June 1948 the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin the portion of Berlin not under Soviet control cutting off all supply of food and other items. The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. In 1949 Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade. While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland212 after an election failure in "3 times YES" elections219 vote rigging was employed to win a majority in the carefully controlled poll.220221222 Following the forged referendum the Polish economy started to become nationalized.223 In Hungary when the Soviets installed a communist government Mtys Rkosi who described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"224 and "Stalin's best pupil"225 took power. Rkosi employed "salami tactics" slicing up these enemies like pieces of salami226 to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish a democracy.227 Rkosi employed Stalinist political and economic programs and was dubbed the "bald murderer" for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.227228 Approximately 350000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956.227 During World War II in Bulgaria the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coup d'tat on the following night.229 The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority and the communists whom he instructed including Kimon Georgiev took full control of domestic politics.229 In 1949 the Soviet Union Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Hungary Poland and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan230 and which were now increasingly cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe.231 Czechoslovakia Hungary and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947 Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the postWorld War II division of Europe.231 In Greece Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece dismissing the movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948. In Stalin's last year of life one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe but Britain France and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer. Sino-Soviet Relations Stalin and Mao Zedong on Chinese Postage stamp In Asia the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China though receptive to minimal Soviet support defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War. There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. During World War II Stalin had supported the dictator of China Chiang Kai-Shek as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye to Chiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping his ideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Chiang's Kuomintang (KMT) regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate with Chiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communist revolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helping Mao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it became clear Mao would win. Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lot of tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil war in China. The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Taiwan. The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China which it regarded as a new ally. The People's Republic claimed Taiwan though it had never held authority there. Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean border conflicts war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950 starting the Korean War. However not surprisingly the relations with the Kuomintang deteriorated. In 1951 in Taiwan the Chinese Muslim Kuomintang General Bai Chongxi made a speech broadcast on radio to the entire Muslim world calling for a war against Russia claiming that the "imperialist ogre" leader Stalin was engineering World War III and Bai also called upon Muslims to avoid the Indian leader Nehru accusing him of being blind to Soviet imperialism.232233 North Korea Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula. The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday 25 June 1950 crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery beginning their invasion of South Korea.234 During the Korean War Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. PostCold War research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin though this is disputed by North Korea.citation needed Israel Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country.235 Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However after providing war materiel for Israel through Czechoslovakia Stalin later changed his mind and came out against Israel. Falsifiers of History In 1948 Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History.236 Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations 19391941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office237238 which included the secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents.237239 Falsifiers originally appeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948238 and was subsequently published in numerous language and distributed worldwide.240 The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations241 and rather focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939.240 It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.237240 It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo-French appeasers who despite appearances had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin.240 It casts the Munich agreement not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitlerite aggressors against the Soviet Union."242 The book also included the claim that during the Pact's operation Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.243 Historical studies official accounts memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction of events until the Soviet Union's dissolution.243 Domestic support Domestically Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. An increasingly nationalistic emphasis on Russian history and achievements became a salient feature of Soviet culture in the 1940s. At the end of May 1945 Stalin proposed a victory toast to the Soviet people and to the virtues of the Russian majority in particular: I should like to propose a toast to the health of our Soviet people and in the first place the Russian people. (Loud and prolonged applause and shouts of 'Hurrah.') I drink in the first place to the health of the Russian people because it is the most outstanding nation of all the nations forming the Soviet Union. I propose a toast to the health of the Russian people because it has won in this war universal recognition as the leading force of the Soviet Union among all the peoples of our country. I propose a toast to the health of the Russian people not only because it is the leading people but also because it possesses a clear mind a staunch character and patience.244 Various foreign scientific discoveries and inventions (such as the Wright Brothers' airplane) were attributed to Russians in post-war Soviet propaganda. Examples include the boiler reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric light by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio by Popov; and the airplane by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories) but never reached the extremes of the 1930s. "Doctors' plot" Main article: Doctors' plot The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors (over half of whom were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials.245 The prevailing opinion of many scholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors' trial to launch a massive party purge.246 The plot is also viewed by many historians as an antisemitic provocation.245 It followed on the heels of the 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee247 and the secret execution of thirteen members on Stalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets.248 Thereafter in a December Politburo session Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of the American intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the United States (there you can become rich bourgeois etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors there are many Jewish nationalists."249 To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issue stories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders250251 including Stalin in order to set the stage for show trials.252 The next month Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters.253 Nikita Khrushchev wrote that Stalin hinted him to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."254255 Stalin also ordered falsely accused physicians to be tortured "to death".256 Regarding the origins of the plot people who knew Stalin such as Khrushchev suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews245257258 and anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky.245259 In 1946 Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."245260 At the end of January 1953 Stalin's personal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders of Stalin)248 was arrested within the frame of the plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953 as was his son-in-law the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg. Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built labor camps in Western Russia252261 using a "Deportation Commission"262263264 that would purportedly act to save Soviet Jews from an engraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials.262265266 Others argue that any charge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence.251 Regardless of whether a plot to deport Jews was planned in his "Secret Speech" in 1956 Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev stated that the Doctors Plot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin" that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants267 and had told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me The country will perish because you do not know how to recognize enemies."267 Death and aftermath Stalin's health deteriorated by the end of World War II. He suffered from atherosclerosis from his heavy smoking. He suffered a mild stroke around the time of the Victory parade and a severe heart attack in October 1945.268 On the early morning hours of 1 March 1953 after an all-night dinner and a movie269 Stalin arrived at his Kuntsevo residence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev where he retired to his bedroom to sleep. At dawn Stalin did not emerge from his room having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body. Stalin's Grave by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time they were under strict orders not to disturb him and left him alone the entire day. At around 10 p.m. he was discovered by Peter Lozgachev the Deputy Commandant of Kuntsevo who entered his bedroom to check up on him and recalled a horrifying scene of Stalin lying on the floor of his room wearing pyjama bottoms and an undershirt with his clothes soaked in stale urine. A frightened Lozgachev asked Stalin what happened to him but all he could get out of the Generalissimo was unintelligible responses that sounded like "Dzhh." Lozgachev frantically called a few party officials asking them to send good doctors.270271 Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards and the doctors only arrived in the early morning of 2 March in which they changed his bedclothes and tended to him. The bedridden Stalin died four days later on 5 March 19531 at the age of 74 and was embalmed on 9 March. Officially the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961 when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization. It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov published in 1993 claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out." Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had immediately after the stroke gone about "spewing hatred against Stalin and mocking him" and then when Stalin showed signs of consciousness dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again Beria immediately stood and spat.272 Later analysis of death In 2003 a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and which predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty.273 His demise arrived at a convenient time for Lavrenty Beria and others who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own.274 Reaction by successors Grutas Park is home to a monument of Stalin originally set up in Vilnius. Monument to Stalin stood in Gori Georgia until 2010 when it was demolished.275 The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin's rule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech" On the Personality Cult and its Consequences delivered to a closed session of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality". A 1974 Soviet work describes Stalin's leadership in the following manner: J. V. Stalin had held since 1922 the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee. He had made important contributions to the implementation of the Partys policy of socialist construction in the USSR and he had won great popularity by his relentless fight against the anti-Leninist groups of the Trotskyites and Bukharinites. Since the early 1930s however all the successes achieved by the Soviet people in the building of socialism began to be arbitrarily attributed to Stalin. Already in a letter written back in 1922 Lenin warned the Party Central Committee: "Comrade Stalin" he wrote "having become General Secretary has concentrated boundless authority in his hands and I am not sure whether he will always be able to exercise that authority with sufficient discretion." During the first few years after Lenins death Stalin reckoned with his critical remarks. As time passed however he abused his position of General Secretary of the Party Central Committee more and more frequently violating the principle of collective leadership and making independent decisions on important Party and state issues. Those personal shortcomings of which Lenin had warned manifested themselves with greater and greater insistence: his rudeness capriciousness intolerance of criticism arbitrariness excessive suspiciousness etc. This led to unjustified restrictions of democracy gross violations of socialist legality and repressions against prominent Party government and military leaders and other people. A Short History of the World In Two Volumes Vol. II.276 Views on Stalin in the Russian Federation Results of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over 35% of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive.277278 Fewer than a third of all Russians regarded Stalin as a murderous tyrant;9 however a Russian court in 2009 ruling on a suit by Stalin's grandson Yevgeny Dzhugashvili against the newspaper Novaya Gazeta ruled that referring to Stalin as a "bloodthirsty cannibal" was not libel.279 In a July 2007 poll 54% of the Russian youth agreed that Stalin did more good than bad while 46% (of them) disagreed that Stalin was a cruel tyrant. Half of the respondents aged from 16 to 19 agreed Stalin was a wise leader.10 In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in the nationwide television project Name of Russia (narrowly behind 13th century prince Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin one of Nicholas II's prime ministers) leading to accusations from Communist Party of the Russian Federation that the poll had been rigged in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place.280 On 3 July 2009 Russia's delegates walked out of an Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe session to demonstrate their objections to a resolution for a remembrance day for the victims of both Nazism and Stalinism.281 Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.281 In a Kremlin video blog posted on 29 October 2009 Russian President Dmitry Medvedev denounced the efforts of people seeking to rehabilitate Stalin's image. He said the mass extermination during the Stalin era cannot be justified.282 Personal life Origin of name nicknames and pseudonyms Stalin's original Georgian is transliterated as "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" (Georgian: ). The Russian transliteration of his name is in turn transliterated to English as "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili". Like other Bolsheviks he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included "Koba" "Soselo" "Ivanov" and many others.283 Stalin is believed to have started using the name "K. Stalin" sometime in 1912 as a pen name. During Stalin's reign his nicknames included: "Uncle Joe" by western media during and after World War II.284285 "Kremlin Highlander" (Russian: ) in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin notably by Osip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram. "Dear father" (Russian: batyushka) as he was portrayed as the paternal figure of the Revolution.286 "Vozhd"' (Russian: "the Chieftain") a term from pre-Tsarist times. Appearance A poster of Stalin While photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic (he had several painters shot who did not depict him "right")287 he was only five feet four inches high (160 cm).287 (President Harry S. Truman who stood only five feet nine inches himself described Stalin as "a little squirt".288) His mustached face was pock-marked from small-pox during childhood. After a carriage accident in his youth his left arm was shortened and stiffened at the elbow while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden.287 He could be charming and polite mainly towards visiting statesmen.287 In movies Stalin was often played by Mikheil Gelovani and less frequently by Aleksei Dikiy. Marriages and family Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze Stalin's first wife Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva Stalin's son Yakov whom he had with his first wife Ekaterina Svanidze shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him but survived. After this Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight".289 Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus who had surrendered after Stalingrad but Stalin turned the offer down stating "You have in your hands not only my son Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my son will share their fate."290 Afterwards Yakov is said to have committed suicide running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentration camp where he was being held.291 Yakov had a son Yevgeny who is recently noted for defending his grandfather's legacy in Russian courts. Yevgeny is married to a Georgian woman has two sons and grandchildren.292 Stalin had a son Vasiliy and a daughter Svetlana with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932 officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal partly political".293 According to A&E Biography there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim her death ultimately "severed his link from reality."294 Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however this is still in question. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk Yuri Davydov who stated that his father had told him of his lineage but was told to keep quiet because of the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality.citation needed Beside his suite in the Kremlin Stalin had numerous domiciles. In 1919 he started with a country house near Usovo he added dachas at Zuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov). Before World War II he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937 including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given to him by Beria. In Abkhazia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Alon near Sukhumi in the Valdai Hills and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All these dachas estates and palaces were staffed well furnished and equipped kept safe by security forces and were mainly used privately rarely for diplomatic purposes.295 Between places Stalin would travel by car or train never by air; he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference. In 1967 Svetlana defected to the USA and later married William Wesley Peters and by him had a daughter Olga (surname now Evans). Habits Stalin enjoyed drinking but could keep it under control.296 He would also often force those around him to join in.296 Stalin preferred Georgian wine over Russian vodka but usually ate traditional Russian food.296 Khrushchev reports in his memoirs that Stalin was fond of American cowboy movies.297 He would often sleep until evening in his dacha and after waking up summon high-ranking Soviet politicians to watch foreign movies with him in the Kremlin movie theater.297 The movies being in foreign languages were given a running translation.297 After the movie had ended Stalin often invited the audience for dinner even though the clock was usually past midnight.297 Attitude to religion Stalin had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union.298 Historians Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov have suggested that "Stalin's atheism remained rooted in some vague idea of a God of nature." 299 One account states that Stalin's reversal on bans against the church during World War II followed a sign that he believed he received from heaven.300 During the Second World War Stalin reopened the Churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the war effort. On 4 September 1943 Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius Metropolitan Alexy and Metropolitan Nikolay to the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate which had been suspended since 1925 and elect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943 Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch. The CPSU Central Committee continued to promote atheism and the elimination of religion during the remainder of Stalin's lifetime after the 1943 concordat.301 Stalin's greater tolerance for religion after 1943 was limited by party machinations. Whether persecutions after World War II were more aimed at certain sections of society over and above detractors is a disputed point. Communist Party of Great Britain (MarxistLeninist) contingent at London May Day march in 2008 carrying a banner of Stalin. Hypotheses rumors and misconceptions about Stalin There are conflicting accounts of Stalin's birth who listed his birth year in various documents as being in 1878 before coming to power in 1922.1 The phrase "death of one man is a tragedy death of a million is a statistic" sometimes attributed to Stalin302 was made by the German writer and pacifist Erich Maria Remarque. In addition hypotheses and popular rumors exist about Stalin's real father.303 Some Bolsheviks and others have accused Stalin of being an agent for the Okhrana.304 Works See also: Stalin's poetry "Anarchism or Socialism" 1907 "Marxism and the National Question" 1913 "The Principles of Leninism" 1924 "Trotskyism or Leninism" 1924 "Dialectical and Historical Materialism" 1938 "The Questions of Leninism" 1946 "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics" 1950 "Economic Problems of Socialism in the U.S.S.R." 1952 Works. Volume 113: Foreign Languages Publishing House Moscow 1950s/"Volume 14": Red Star Press London 1978 Stalin was also a well-regarded poet in his youth. Some of his poems were published in Ilia Chavchavadze's journal Iveria and later anthologized.305306 See also Index of Soviet Union-related articles Stalinism Neo-Stalinism Stalin Society Anti-Stalinist left Stalinist architecture Stalin Peace Prize Joseph Stalin Museum Gori Stalin Monument in Budapest Stalin Monument (Prague) List of places named after Joseph Stalin Stalin's antisemitism Stalin Bloc For the USSR Yanks for Stalin References Notes a b c d Although there is an inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's year and date of birth Iosif Dzhugashvili is found in the records of the Uspensky Church in Gori Georgia as born on 18 December (Old Style: 6 December) 1878. This birth date is maintained in his School Leaving Certificate his extensive tsarist Russia police file a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years and all other surviving pre-Revolution documents. As late as 1921 Stalin himself listed his birthday as 18 December 1878 in a curriculum vitae in his own handwriting. However after his coming to power in 1922 Stalin changed the date to 21 December 1879 (Old Style date 9 December 1879). That became the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union."Prominent figures". State and Power in Russia. http://state.rin.ru/cgi-bin/personae.plid4140&idsubcat6&r8. Retrieved 19 July 2008.  Wheatcroft S. G.; Davies R. W.; Cooper J. M. (1986). Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941. 39. Economic History Review. p. 264. ISBN 9780719046001. http://books.google.com/idm-voAAAAIAAJ&dq.  a b Getty Rittersporn Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review Vol. 98 No. 4 (Oct. 1993) pp. 1017-1049. Abbott Gleason (2009). A Companion to Russian History. Wiley-Blackwell. p.373. ISBN 1-4051-3560-3 Michael Jabara Carley. End of the 'Low Dishonest Decade': Failure of the AngloFrancoSoviet Alliance in 1939. Europe-Asia Studies Vol. 45 No. 2 (1993) pp. 303341 Weinberg G.L. (1995). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge University Press. p. 264. ISBN 0521558794.  Rozhnov Konstantin Who won World War II. BBC. Superpower politics: change in the United States and the Soviet Union Books.Google.com a b How Russia faced its dark past BBC News (5 March 2003) a b Russian youth: Stalin good migrants must go: poll Reuters (25 July 2007) Montefiore Young Stalin p. 61 Medvedev Let History Judge p. 29 Montefiore Young Stalin p. 261 a b Simon Sebag Montefiore. Young Stalin. 2007. ISBN 9780297850687 Robert Service. Stalin: A Biography. pg 172 Knight Ami W. (1991) Beria and the Cult of Stalin: Rewriting Transcaucasian Party History. Soviet Studies Vol. 43 No. 4 pp. 749763 Shanin Teodor (July 1989) Ethnicity in the Soviet Union: Analytical Perceptions and Political Strategies. Comparative Studies in Society and History Vol. 31 No. 3 pp. 409424 a b c d e f g Robert Service. Stalin: A Biography. 2004. ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0 Peter Gue Zarrow (2005). China in war and revolution 1895-1949. Psychology Press. p. 233. ISBN 0415364477. http://books.google.com/booksidOCI3gnzsYc0C&pgPA233. Retrieved 2011-01-01.  Robert Carver North (1963). Moscow and Chinese Communists. Stanford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 0804704538. http://books.google.com/booksidwjCsAAAAIAAJ&pgPA96. Retrieved 2011-01-01.  Walter Moss (2005). A history of Russia: Since 1855. Anthem Press. p. 282. ISBN 1843310341. http://books.google.com/booksidyMwdWFtgV0QC&pgPA282. Retrieved 2011-01-01.  a b c d e f Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar Knopf 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5) Soviet Readers Finally Told Moscow Had Trotsky Slain. Published in the New York Times on 5 January 1989. Retrieved 4 October 2007 "Joseph Stalin Height Stalin's". http://www.celebheights.com/s/Joseph-Stalin-3210.html.  Tuominen Arvo. The Bells of the Kremlin. p. 162. ISBN 0874512492.  a b Orlando Figes The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia 2007 ISBN 08050-7461-9 Lenin Stalin and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. ISBN 1400040051 Ian Kershaw Moshe Lewin Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison Cambridge University Press 1997 ISBN 0521565219 p. 300 Leo Kuper Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century Yale University Press 1982 ISBN 0300031203 Brackman 2001 p. 204 Brackman 2001 pp. 2056 Brackman 2001 p. 207 a b Overy 2004 p. 182 Tucker 1992 p. 456 Snyder Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books 2010. ISBN 0465002390 p. 137 "Newseum: The Commissar Vanishes". http://www.newseum.org/berlinwall/commissarvanishes/vanishes.htm. Retrieved 19 July 2008.  The scale of Stalin's purging of Red Army officers was exceptional90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included three out of five Marshals 13 out of 15 Army commanders 57 of 85 Corps commanders 110 of 195 divisional commanders and 220 of 406 brigade commanders as well as all commanders of military districts. (p.195 Carell P. (1964) Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of the German Defeat in the East. translated from German by Ewald Osers B.I. Publications New Delhi 1974 (first Indian edition) Tucker Robert C. Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation American Council of Learned Societies Planning Group on Comparative Communist Studies Transaction Publishers 1999 ISBN 0765804832 p. 5 Overy 2004 p. 338 Tim Tzouliadis. Nightmare in the workers paradise BBC 2 August 2008 See also: Tzouliadis Tim. The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia. The Penguin Press 2008 (ISBN 1594201684) Barry McLoughlin; Kevin McDermott(eds) (4 February 2003). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 141. ISBN 1403901198. http://books.google.com/id8yorTJl1QEoC&pgPA141.  Hiroaki Kuromiya The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press 24 December 2007. ISBN 0300123892 p. 4 Barry McLoughlin; Kevin McDermott(eds) (4 February 2003). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 1403901198. http://books.google.com/id8yorTJl1QEoC&pgPA6.  Snyder Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books 2010. ISBN 0465002390 p. 101 Rosefielde Stephen Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s Europe-Asia Studies Vol. 48 No. 6 1996 Comment on Wheatcroft by Robert Conquest 1999 Pipes Richard Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicles) p. 67 Applebaum 2003 p. 584 John Keep. Recent Writing on Stalin's Gulag: An Overview. 1997 a b c Michael Ellman Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 193233 Revisited Europe-Asia Studies Routledge. Vol. 59 No. 4 June 2007 663693. PDF file Quoted in Dmitri Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York 1991) p.210 a b Hiroaki Kuromiya The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press 24 December 2007. ISBN 0300123892 p. 2 Michael Ellman. The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 19311934. Europe-Asia Studies 2005. p. 826 a b Boobbyer 2000 p. 130 Pohl Otto Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR 19371949 ISBN 0313309213 "Soviet Transit Camp and Deportation Death Rates". http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/USSR.TAB1B.GIF. Retrieved 25 June 2010.  a b Alan Bullock pp. 904905 Robert Conquest in Victims of Stalinism: A Comment. Europe-Asia Studies Vol. 49 No. 7 (Nov. 1997) pp. 13171319 states:"We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone to which must be added 45 million going to Gulag 'colonies' to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in or sent to 'labour settlements'. However taken these are surely 'high' figures." "The rise of Stalin: AD19211924". History of Russia. HistoryWorld. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.aspHistoryIDac14&ParagraphIDqxe#qxe. Retrieved 19 July 2008.  Stalin Joseph Dizzy with successPravda 2 March 1930 Stalin Joseph Reply to Collective Farm Comrades Pravda 3 April 1930 "Ukraine Irks Russia With Push to Mark Stalin Famine as Genocide". Bloomberg.com. 3 January 2008 "Overpopulation.Com " The Soviet Famines of 1921 and 1932-3". http://web.archive.org/web/20080202145721rn1/www.overpopulation.com/faq/famine/the-soviet-famines-of-1921-and-1932-3/.  "Ukraine's Holodomor". Times Online (London). 1 July 2008. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/letters/article4243813.ece. Retrieved 19 October 2008.  Alan Bullock p. 269 a b (PDF) The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia. 5 The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 19311933. Palgrave Macmillan. 2004. http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/faculty/harrison/reviews/davies-wheatcroft2004.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.  "Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 19311933" (PDF). The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies. http://www.as.wvu.edu/history/Faculty/Tauger/Tauger%20Natural%20Disaster%20and%20Human%20Actions.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.  According to Ellman although the 1946 drought was severe government mismanagement of its grain reserves largely accounted for the population losses. Michael Ellman "The 1947 Soviet Famine and the Entitlement Approach to Famines" Cambridge Journal of Economics 24 (2000): 60330. PDF file Findings of the Commission on the Ukraine Famine. Famine Genocide. 19 April 1988. http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/findings.html.  See also: "Statement by Pope John Paul II on the 70th anniversary of the Famine". Skrobach. http://www.skrobach.com/ukrhol.htm. Retrieved 23 August 2008.  See also: "Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives regarding the man-made famine that occurred in Ukraine in 19321933". US House of Representatives. 21 October 2003. http://www.artukraine.com/famineart/uscongr4.htm. Retrieved 23 August 2008.  See also: Yaroslav Bilinsky (1999). "Was the Ukrainian Famine of 19321933 Genocide". Journal of Genocide Research 1 (2): 147156. doi:10.1080/14623529908413948. http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html.  Lisova Natasha (28 November 2006). "Ukraine Recognize Famine As Genocide". Associated Press. http://www.ukemonde.com/holodomor/index.html.  France Mesl Gilles Pison Jacques Vallin France-Ukraine: Demographic Twins Separated by History Population and societies N413 juin 2005 ce Mesl Jacques Vallin Mortalit et causes de dcs en Ukraine au XX sicle + CDRom ISBN 2-7332-0152-2 CD online data (partially Ined.fr Stanislav Kulchytsky Hennadiy Yefimenko. 1933 . . 1937 . : (Demographic consequence of Holodomor of 1933 in Ukraine. The all-Union census of 1937 in Ukraine) Kiev Institute of History 2003 . (Stephen G. Wheatcroft) " 19311933 ." (On demographic evidence of the tragedy of the Soviet village in 19311833) " : 19271939 .: . 3. 19301933 ." 2001 ISBN 5-8243-0225-1 . 885 2 "The famine of 193233". Ukraine: Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612921/Ukraine/30078/Soviet-Ukraine#refref404577. Retrieved 25 June 2010.  Kyiv court accuses Stalin leadership of organizing famine Kyiv Post (13 January 2010) Ukraine court finds Bolsheviks guilty of Holodomor genocide (13 January 2010) Charles N. Steele (2002) (PDF). Sustainable Development: Promoting Progress or Perpetuating Poverty. Profile Books. http://ipn.lexi.net/images/uploaded/12-402934626c558--charlessteelechapter6.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.  See also: "Reassessing the Standard of Living in the Soviet Union" (PDF). Centre for Economic Policy Research. 2002. http://www.cepr.org/meets/wkcn/7/753/papers/brainerd.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2008.  Robert Lewis; ed. Mark Harrison R.W. Davies S.G. Wheatcroft (1994). The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press. p. 188.  Oliver Freire Jr. Marxism and the Quantum Controversy: Responding to Max Jammer's Question Pter Szegedi Cold War and Interpretations in Quantum Mechanics a b c d Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar Knopf 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5) a b c Acton Edward Russia The Tsarist and Soviet Legacy Longmann Group Ltd (1995) ISBN 0-582-08922-0 "Russia". Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2007. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia. Retrieved 19 July 2008.  Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice and the Believer vol 2: Soviet Anti-Religious Campaigns and Persecutions St Martin's Press New York (1988) p. 89 Alexander N. Yakovlev; Austin Anthony; Hollander Paul (10 April 2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 9780300103229. http://books.google.com/idChRk43tVxTwC&pgPA165.  See also: Richard Pipes (2001). Communism: A History. Modern Library Chronicles. p. 66. ISBN 0679640509.  Joseph V.Stalin. "Voprosy leninizma" 2nd ed. Moscow p. 589; (1951) "Istoricheskij materializm" ed. by F. B. Konstantinov Moscow p. 402; P. Calvert (1982). "The Concept of Class" New York pp. 144145 "Twentieth Century Atlas Death Tolls". http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Stalin.  See also: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Gulag Archipelago 19181956 19731976 ISBN 0-8133-3289-3 Stephen G. Wheatcroft "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word" Source: Europe-Asia Studies Vol. 51 No. 2 (Mar. 1999) pp. 315345 gives the following numbers: During 192153 the number of sentences was (political convictions): sentences 4060306; death penalties 799473; camps and prisons 2634397; excile 413512; other 215942. In addition during 193752 there were 14269753 non-political sentences among them 34228 death penalties 2066637 sentences for 01 year 4362973 for 25 years 1611293 for 610 years and 286795 for more than 10 years. Other sentences were non-custodial Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 649. ISBN 0753817667.  "A century of genocide: utopias of race and nation". Eric D. Weitz (2003). Princeton University Press. p.82. ISBN 0691009139 Nicholas Werth "A state against its people: violence repression and terror in the Soviet Union" in Stphane Courtois Mark Kramer. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes Terror Repression. Harvard University Press 1999. pp. 33268: p.223. ISBN 0-674-07608-7 "Recording a Hidden History". The Washington Post. 5 April 2006 Roberts Geoffrey. "Stalin's wars: from World War to Cold War 19391953". New Heaven CT; London: Yale University Press 2006 (ISBN 0300112041) p. 98 Ellman Michael. Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments Europe-Asia Studies. Vol 54 No. 7 2002 11511172 a b Applebaum 2003 "Soviet Studies". http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/.  See also: Robert Gellately. Lenin Stalin and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. 584: "Anne Applebaum is right to insist that the statistics 'can never fully describe what happened.' They do suggest however the massive scope of the repression and killing." Robert Gellately. Lenin Stalin and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf 2007. ISBN 1400040051 p. 256 Getty Rittersporn Zemskov. "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years". Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080611064213/http://www.etext.org/Politics/Staljin/Staljin/articles/AHR/AHR.html.  See also: Stephen Wheatcroft (1996). "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings 193045" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-GermanSoviet.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.  and Stephen Wheatcroft (1990). "More light on the scale of repression and excess mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s" (PDF). Soviet Studies. http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-ScaleRepression.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2008.  Vadim Erlikman (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow 2004: Russkaia panorama. ISBN 5-93165-107-1.  Ellman Michael (09 2005). "The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 19311934" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies (Routledge) 57 (6): 82341. doi:10.1080/09668130500199392. http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman.pdf. Retrieved 4 July 2008.  Naimark Norman M. Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press 2010. pp. 134135. ISBN 0691147841 Rosefielde Steven. Red Holocaust. Routledge 2009. ISBN 0415777577 pg. 259 Snyder Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books 2010. ISBN 0465002390 pp. vii 413 R. W. Davies Stephen G. Wheatcroft: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 19311933 2004 ISBN 0-333-31107-8 Andreev EM et al. Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza 19221991. Moscow Nauka 1993. ISBN 5-02-013479-1 Steven Rosefielde. Documented Homicides and Excess Deaths: New Insights into the Scale of Killing in the USSR during the 1930s. Communist and Post-Communist Studies Vol. 30 No. 3 pp. 321333 1997. University of California Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 649: "Perhaps 20 million had been killed; 28 million deported of whom 18 million had slaved in the Gulags.". ISBN 0753817667.  See also: Dmitri Volkogonov. Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime. pp. 139: "Between 1929 and 1953 the state created by Lenin and set in motion by Stalin deprived 21.5 million Soviet citizens of their lives.". ISBN 0684834200.  and Alexander N. Yakovlev; Austin Anthony; Hollander Paul (10 April 2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press. p. 234: "My own many years and experience in the rehabilitation of victims of political terror allow me to assert that the number of people in the USSR who were killed for political motives or who died in prisons and camps during the entire period of Soviet power totaled 20 to 25 million. And unquestionably one must add those who died of famine  more than 5.5 million during the civil war and more than 5 million during the 1930s.". ISBN 9780300103229. http://books.google.com/idChRk43tVxTwC&pgPA234.  and Robert Gellately. Lenin Stalin and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. 584: "More recent estimations of the Soviet-on-Soviet killing have been more 'modest' and range between ten and twenty million." and Stphane Courtois. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes Terror Repression. Harvard University Press 1999. p. 4: "U.S.S.R.: 20 million deaths." and Jonathan Brent Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co. 2008 (ISBN 0977743330) Introduction online (PDF file): Estimations on the number of Stalin's victims over his twenty-five year reign from 1928 to 1953 vary widely but 20 million is now considered the minimum. and Steven Rosefielde. Red Holocaust. Routledge 2009. ISBN 0415777577 p.17: "We now know as well beyond a reasonable doubt that there were more than 13 million Red Holocaust victims 192953 and this figure could rise above 20 million." and Norman Naimark. Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press 2010. p. 11: "Yet Stalin's own responsibility for the killing of some fifteen to twenty million people carries its own horrific weight..." Robert Conquest. The Great Terror: A Reassessment Oxford University Press 1991 (ISBN 0-19-507132-8) Robert Conquest The Great Terror: A Reassessment 40th Anniversary Edition Oxford University Press 2007 in Preface p. xvi: "Exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty but the total of deaths caused by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors can hardly be lower than some fifteen million." "Regimes murdering over 10 million people". http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MEGA.HTM.  How Many Did Stalin Really Murder by Professor R.J. Rummel Roberts 2006 pp. 3032 Shirer 1990 pp. 510535 Murphy 2006 pp. 2428 Lionel Kochan. The Struggle For Germany. 19141945. New York 1963 Ericson 1999 p. 57 Roberts 1992 p. 64 Vehvilinen Olli Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia Macmillan 2002 ISBN 0333801490 p. 30 a b Roberts 1992 pp. 5778 Encyclopedia Britanica German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact 2008 a b Text of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact executed 23 August 1939 Christie Kenneth Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe: Ghosts at the Table of Democracy RoutledgeCurzon 2002 ISBN 0700715991 Shirer William L. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany Simon and Schuster 1990 ISBN 0671728687 p. 541 Roberts 2006 p. 43 Sanford George (2005). Katyn and the Soviet Massacre Of 1940: Truth Justice And Memory. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415338735.  a b Wettig 2008 p. 20 Wettig 2008 p. 21 Senn Alfred Erich Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above Amsterdam New York Rodopi 2007 ISBN 9789042022256 Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 334. ISBN 0753817667.  a b Kennedy-Pipe Caroline Stalin's Cold War New York: Manchester University Press 1995 ISBN 0719042011 Roberts 2006 p. 53 a b c Brackman 2001 p. 341 Roberts 2006 p. 58 Brackman 2001 p. 343 a b Roberts 2006 p. 59 Roberts 2006 p. 63 Roberts 2006 p. 82 a b Roberts 2006 p. 67 Ferguson Niall (12 June 2005). "Stalin's Intelligence". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.htmlres9E06E4D71638F931A25755C0A9639C8B63. Retrieved 7 May 2010.  Roberts 2006 p. 68 Murphy 2006 p. xv Yakovlev Alexander; Anthony Austin (2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. New Haven Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300087608. http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.aspisbn0300103220.  Roberts 2006 p. 89 a b Roberts 2006 p. 90 Roberts 2006 pp. 1167 Glantz David The Soviet-German War 194145: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay 11 October 2001 p. 7 a b Roberts 2006 pp. 114115 a b Roberts 2006 p. 88 Roberts 2006 pp. 1178 Roberts 2006 p. 124 Time Magazine Josef Stalin 4 Jan. 1943 Roberts 2006 p. 155 Roberts 2006 p. 156 a b Roberts 2006 p. 159 Roberts 2006 p. 163 Roberts 2006 p. 180 Roberts 2006 p. 185 Roberts 2006 pp. 1867 Roberts 2006 pp. 1945 Roberts 2006 pp. 199201 Glantz David The Soviet-German War 194145: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay 11 October 2001 Clemson.edu Beevor Antony Berlin: The Downfall 1945 Viking Penguin Books 2005 ISBN 0670886955 p. 194 Williams Andrew (2005). D-Day to Berlin. Hodder. ISBN 0340833971. pp. 3101 Bullock Alan Hitler: A Study in Tyranny Penguin Books ISBN 0140135642 1962 pp. 799800 Kershaw Ian Hitler 19361945: Nemesis W. W. Norton & Company 2001 ISBN 0393322521 pp. 103839 Dolezal Robert Truth about History: How New Evidence Is Transforming the Story of the Past Readers Digest 2004 ISBN 0762105232 pp. 1856 "Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union". Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). Harvard University Press. p.242. ISBN 0-674-02178-9 a b Glantz David The Soviet-German War 194145: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay 11 October 2001 p. 13 "The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth Save Our Environment". J. W. Smith (1994). p.204. ISBN 0-9624423-2-1 "A Companion to Russian History". Abbott Gleason (2009). Wiley-Blackwell. p.409. ISBN 1-4051-3560-3 Stephen J. Lee (2000). "European dictatorships 1918-1945". Routledge. p.86. ISBN 0415230462 Hart Michael H. The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History Revised and Updated for the Nineties New York: Citadel Press Book 1992 "Euroheritage.net". Euroheritage.net. http://euroheritage.net/stalinshomegallery.shtml. Retrieved 25 June 2010.  "Record from The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace 19011956". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobelprizes/peace/nomination/nomination.phpactionshow&showid3323. Retrieved 14 May 2010.  "Record from The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace 19011956". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobelprizes/peace/nomination/nomination.phpactionshow&showid2754. Retrieved 14 May 2010.  (Polish) obozy jenieckie zolnierzy polskich (Prison camps for Polish soldiers) Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved 28 November 2006 a b (Polish) Edukacja Humanistyczna w wojsku. 1/2005. Dom wydawniczy Wojska Polskiego. ISNN 1734-6584. (Official publication of the Polish Army) (Russian) V 31 250 . (Please provide translation of the reference title and publication data and means) (Russian) p. 367. (Report of the Ukrainian and Belorussian fronts of the Red Army Melyukhov) a b c Benjamin B. Fischer "The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field" Studies in Intelligence Winter 19992000 Excerpt from the minutes No. 13 of the Politburo of the Central Committee meeting shooting order of 5 March 1940 Electronicmuseum.ca last accessed on 19 December 2005 original in Russian with English translation George Sanford Katyn and the Soviet massacre of 1940: truth justice and memory Routledge 2005 ISBN 0415338735 pp. 20-24 "Stalin's Killing Field" (PDF). https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol43no3/pdf/v43i3a06p.pdf. Retrieved 19 July 2008.  (Polish) Various authors. Biuletyn Kombatant nr specjalny (148) czerwiec 2003 Special Edition of Kombatant Bulletin No.148 6/2003 on the occasion of the Year of General Sikorski. Official publication of the Polish government Agency of Combatants and Repressed " " - 1991 9 ISSN 0042-9058 a b Brackman 2001 (Polish) Barbara Polak (2005). "Zbrodnia katynska" (PDF). Biuletyn IPNpages 421. http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspxlogid5&idf4349d43-b13d-4c2c-a70d-056e8801493d. Retrieved 22 September 2007.  Engel David. "Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews 19431945". 1993. ISBN 0-8078-2069-5. p. 71 Bauer Eddy. "The Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War II". Marshall Cavendish 1985 Goebbels Joseph. The Goebbels Diaries (19421943). Translated by Louis P. Lochner. Doubleday & Company. 1948 "Chronology 1990; The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe." Foreign Affairs 1990 p. 212 Text of Order No. 270 a b Roberts 2006 p. 98 a b c Roberts 2006 p. 132 G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 1-85367-280-7 Robert Gellately. Lenin Stalin and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf 2007 ISBN 1400040051 p. 391 Richard Rhodes (2002). Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 4647. ISBN 0-375-40900-9.  See also: Allen Paul. Katyn: Stalin's Massacre and the Seeds of Polish Resurrection Naval Institute Press 1996 (ISBN 1-55750-670-1) p. 155 Schissler Hanna The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany 19491968 Mark James "Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 19441945" Past & Present Number 188 August 2005 p. 133 Naimark Norman M. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation 19451949. Cambridge: Belknap 1995 ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 7071 Beevor Antony Berlin: The Downfall 1945 Penguin Books 2002 ISBN 0-670-88695-5. Specific reports also include Report of the Swiss legation in Budapest of 1945 and Hubertus Knabe: Tag der Befreiung Das Kriegsende in Ostdeutschland (A day of liberation The end of war in Eastern Germany) Propylen 2005 ISBN 3549072457 German) "The Soviet special camp No.7 / No. 1 19451950". http://www.stiftung-bg.de/gums/en/geschichte/speziallager/spezial01.htm. Retrieved 22 April 2009.  Ex-Death Camp Tells Story Of Nazi and Soviet Horrors New York Times 17 December 2001 Germans Find Mass Graves at an Ex-Soviet Camp New York Times 24 September 1992 Richard Overy The Dictators Hitler's Germany Stalin's Russia p.568569 a b c d e f Roberts 2006 p. 202 ("- " ("Military-Historical Magazine") 1997 5. p. 32) .. . 19441951 // . 1990. 4 (Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR. 1990 No.4 a b c d Roberts 2006 pp. 241244 a b Wettig 2008 pp. 478 a b c d 11 February 1945 Potsdam Report reprinted in Potsdam Ashley John Soames Grenville and Bernard Wasserstein The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts Taylor & Francis 2001 ISBN 041523798X Roberts 2006 pp. 2745 a b Wettig 2008 pp. 901 Anthony Eden (1965). Memoirs: The Reckoning.  Muller James W. Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech Fifty Years Later University of Missouri Press 1999 ISBN 0826212476 pp. 18 Gaddis John Lewis We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History Oxford University Press Incorporated 1998 ISBN 0198780710 a b c Wettig 2008 pp. 95100 Curp David A Clean Sweep: The Politics of Ethnic Cleansing in Western Poland 19451960 Boydell & Brewer 2006 ISBN 1580462383 pp. 6669 "Poland." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 7 April 2007 Tom Buchanan Europe's Troubled Peace 19452000: 19452000 Blackwell Publishing 2005 ISBN 0631221638 p.84 A brief history of Poland: Chapter 13: The Post-War Years 19451990. Polonia Today Online. Retrieved on 28 March 2007 Poland The Historical Setting: Chapter 6: The Polish People's Republic. Polish Academic Information Center University at Buffalo. Retrieved on 14 March 2007 Sugar Peter F. Peter Hanak and Tibor Frank A History of Hungary Indiana University Press 1994 ISBN 025320867X pp. 37577 Matthews John P. C. Explosion: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Hippocrene Books 2007 ISBN 0781811740 pp. 934 Baer Helmut David The Struggle of Hungarian Lutherans Under Communism Texas A&M University Press 2006 ISBN 1585444804 p. 16 a b c Granville Johanna The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956 Texas A&M University Press 2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4 Gati Charles Failed Illusions: Moscow Washington Budapest and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt Stanford University Press 2006 ISBN 0804756066 pp. 912 a b Wettig 2008 p. 50 Germany (East) Library of Congress Country Study Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance a b Bideleux & Jeffries 1998 "Moslems Urged To Resist Russia". Christian Science Monitor. 25 Sep 1951. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/csmonitorhistoric/access/275861742.htmldids275861742:275861742&FMTCITE&FMTSCITE:AI&dateSep+25%2C+1951&author&pubChristian+Science+Monitor&descMoslems+Urged+To+Resist+Russia&pqatlgoogle.  "CHINESE ASKS ALL MOSLEMS TO FIGHT REDS". Chicago Daily Tribune. 24 Sep 1951. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/497978032.htmldids497978032:497978032&FMTCITE&FMTSCITE:AI&typehistoric&dateSep+24%2C+1951&author&pubChicago+Tribune&descCHINESE+ASKS+ALL+MOSLEMS+TO+FIGHT+REDS&pqatlgoogle.  Stokesbury James L (1990). A Short History of the Korean War. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0688095135.  See e.g. Brown Philip Marshall. "The Recognition of Israel" American Journal of International Law Vol. 42 No. 3 (Jul. 1948) p. 620 Roberts 2002 p. 98 a b c Henig 2005 p. 67 a b Roberts 2002 p. 96 Department of State 1948 pp. 80358 a b c d Roberts 2002 p. 97 Roberts 2002 p. 100 Taubert 2003 p. 318 a b Nekrich Ulam & Freeze 1997 pp. 202205 Stalin J. V. (1945). "Toast to the Russian People at a Reception in Honour of Red Army Commanders Given by the Soviet Government in the Kremlin on Thursday May 24 1945". In War Speeches Orders of the Day and Answers to Foreign Correspondents During the Great Patriotic War. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd. London 1946. Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 22 February 2011. a b c d e Ro'i Yaacov Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union Routledge 1995 ISBN 0714646199 pp. 1036 Encyclopedia Britannica The Doctors' Plot 2008 Brackman 2001 pp. 3845 a b Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (introduction) by Joshua Rubenstein From the diary of Vice-Chair of the Sovmin V.A. Malyshev. See G. Kostyrchenko Gosudarstvennyj antisemitizm v SSSR Moscow 2005 pp. 461 462 Brent & Naumov 2004 p. 288 a b Gorlizki Yoram and Oleg Khlevniuk Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle 19451953 Sourcebooks Inc. 2005 ISBN 0195304209 p. 158 a b Zuehlke Jeffrey Joseph Stalin Twenty-First Century Books 2005 ISBN 0822534215 pp. 99101 "Vicious Spies and Killers under the Mask of Academic Physicians". Pravda. 13 January 1953. http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/vrach-ubijca-e.html. Retrieved 1 March 2007.  Pinkus Benjamin The Soviet Government and the Jews 19481967: A Documented Study Cambridge University Press 1984 ISBN 0521247136 pp. 1078 Brackman 2001 p. 390 "Stalin's torture: 'Beat them to death'" Novaya Gazeta 2008. (Russian) Montefiore Simon Sebag Young Stalin Random House Inc. 2008 ISBN 1400096138 p. 165 Kun Mikls Stalin: An Unknown Portrait Central European University Press 2003 ISBN 9639241199 p. 287 Rappaport Helen Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion ABC-CLIO 1999 ISBN 1576070840 page297 Brent & Naumov 2004 p. 184 Brent & Naumov 2004 p. 295 a b Brackman 2001 p. 388 Brent & Naumov 2004 pp. 4748 & 295 Eisenstadt Yaakov Stalin's Planned Genocide 22 Adar 5762 6 March 2002 Brent & Naumov 2004 pp. 298300 Solzhenitzin Alexander The Gulag Archipelago 1973 a b Khrushchev Nikita Special Report to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Closed session 2425 February 1956 Zhores A. Medvedev The unknown Stalin (2006) p. 6 Sebag Montefiore Simon (4 June 2004). "Why Stalin loved Tarzan and wanted John Wayne shot". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3618310/Why-Stalin-loved-Tarzan-and-wanted-John-Wayne-shot.html. Retrieved 24 August 2010.  " ". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/press/newsid2796000/2796261.stm.  Montefiore Sebag Simon. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. p. 634; New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5); New York: Vintage 2005 Simon Sebag Montefiore Stalin 2003 p. 571 Brent & Naumov 2004 Stalin was afraid of Beria thought Khrushchev and would have been glad to get rid of him but didnt know how to do it. Stalin himself confirmed this sensing that Beria was winning support.... Simon Sebag Montefiore Stalin 2003 p. 548. Cf. Nikita Khrushchev Khrushchev remembers 1971 pp. 250 311 Stalin Statue Removed from Gori. Civil Georgia. June 25 2010 A.Z. Manfred (Ed.). A Short History of the World In Two Volumes Vol. II. Moscow: Progress Publishers. 1974. pp. 108-109. "Modern Poll  Votes for Stalin". http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101facomment85101/sarah-e-mendelson-theodore-p-gerber/failing-the-stalin-test.html.  Walker Shaun (14 May 2008). "The Big Question: Why is Stalin still popular in Russia despite the brutality of his regime". London: The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/the-big-question-why-is-stalin-still-popular-in-russia-despite-the-brutality-of-his-regime-827654.html. Retrieved 23 August 2008.  "Russia: Court Rejects Libel Claim by Stalin's Grandson" Associated Press article in The New York Times 13 October 2009 Tom Parfitt in Moscow (29 December 2008). "Greatest Russian poll". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/29/stalin-name-of-russia. Retrieved 25 June 2010.  a b "Resolution on Stalin riles Russia". BBC News. 3 July 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8133749.stm.  Galpin Richard (30 October 2009). "Medvedev blasts Stalin defenders". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8334009.stm. Retrieved 25 June 2010.  Montefiore Simon (2007). "Epilogue". Young Stalin (2007 Costa biography winner ed.). Britain: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 395. ISBN 0297850687.  "The Human Monster" p. 4. O'Hehir A. Salon.com. 5 May 2005 Rico Ralph (31 May 1997). "Rethinking Churchill". In Denson John V.. The Costs of War: America's Pyrrhic Victories (1st ed.). New Brunswick N.J.: Transaction Publishers. p. 258. ISBN 1560003197. OCLC 36011765. http://books.google.com/idWbJNNPgcrykC&pgPA258. Retrieved 21 September 2008.  Rappaport Helen (1999). Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576072080. http://books.google.com/booksidlsKClpnX8qwC&pgPA264. Retrieved 22 March 2011.  a b c d Nikolai Tolstoy. Stalin's Secret War. Holt Rinehart and Winston (1981) ISBN 0-03-047266-0. pp. 1921. ISBN 0030472660.  McCullough David (9 April 1952). Truman. Simon and Schuster. p. 507. ISBN 9780743260299. http://books.google.com/id8fp1A2s6aQwC&pgPA507. Retrieved 25 June 2010.  Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar Knopf 2004. page11 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5) "Historical Notes: The Death of Stalin's Son". Time. 1 March 1968. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917194121600.html. Retrieved 7 May 2010.  Desmond Butler (December 17 2001). "Ex-Death Camp Tells Story of Nazi + Soviet Horrors". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/17/world/ex-death-camp-tells-story-of-nazi-and-soviet-horrors.html.  Knipp Steven (2006-12-17). The San Francisco Chronicle. http://articles.sfgate.com/2006-12-17/opinion/173265691red-army-joseph-stalin-germans.  Koba the Dread p. 133 ISBN 0786868767; Stalin: The Man and His Era p. 354 ISBN 0807070017 in a footnote he quotes the press announcement as speaking of her "sudden death"; he also cites pp. 103105 of his daughter's book Twenty Letters to a Friend the Russian edition New York 1967 "YouTube Joseph Stalin Biography 1 of 2". http://www.youtube.com/watchvK2sugMM9y3Q.  Nikolai Tolstoy ibid. pp. 3537 a b c McCauley Martin (2008). Stalin and Stalinism. USA: Pearson Education. p. 92. ISBN 1405874368.  a b c d Khrushchev Nikita (2006). "Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR". Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev vol. II. USA: Penn State Press. pp. 115116. ISBN 0271028610.  Avalos Hector Fighting Words: The Origins Of Religious Violence. by p. 325 Vladislav Zubok; Constantine Pleshakov. Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev. p. 4. ISBN 0674455312.  (Radzinsky 1996 pp. 4723) Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice and the Believer vol 1: A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies St Martin's Press New York (1987) p.71 "Mass crimes against humanity and genocide". Religioustolerance.org. http://www.religioustolerance.org/genocide0.htm. Retrieved 19 October 2008.  "Was Prejevalsky really the father of Joseph Stalin". Logoi.com. http://www.logoi.com/notes/prejevalskystalin.html. Retrieved 19 October 2008.  Smith Edward Ellis.The Young Stalin. New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux 1967. p.77 Simon Sebag Montefiore (May 19 2007). "Before the terror". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2007/may/19/featuresreviews.guardianreview32. Retrieved April 12 2011.  Suzanne Merkelson (April 8 2011). "Bad Politics Worse Prose". Foreign Policy. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/04/08/badpoliticsworseprosepage03. Retrieved April 12 2011.  Bibliography Applebaum Anne (2003). Gulag: A History. Doubleday. ISBN 0767900561.  Bideleux Robert; Jeffries Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. ISBN 9780203050248.  Boobbyer Phillip (2000). The Stalin Era. Routledge. ISBN 0767900561.  Brackman Roman (2001). The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life. Frank Cass Publishers. ISBN 0714650501.  Brent Jonathan; Naumov Vladimir (2004). Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors 19481953. HarperCollins. ISBN 0060933100.  Fest Joachim C. (2002). Hitler. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0156027542.  Henig Ruth Beatrice (2005). The Origins of the Second World War 193341. Routledge. ISBN 0415332621.  Montefiore Simon Sebag (2007). Young Stalin. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 9780297850687.  Murphy David E. (2006). What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press. ISBN 030011981X.  Overy R. J. (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393020304.  Nekrich Aleksandr Moiseevich; Ulam Adam Bruno; Freeze Gregory L. (1997). Pariahs Partners Predators: German-Soviet Relations 19221941. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231106769.  Roberts Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War 19391953. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300112041.  Roberts Geoffrey (2002). Stalin the Pact with Nazi Germany and the Origins of Postwar Soviet Diplomatic Historiography. 4.  Roberts Geoffrey (1992). "The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany". Soviet Studies (Taylor & Francis Ltd.) 55 (2): 5778. http://www.jstor.org/stable/152247.  Soviet Information Bureau (1948). Falsifiers of History (Historical Survey). Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 272848.  Department of State (1948). Nazi-Soviet Relations 19391941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office. Department of State. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/nsr/nsr-preface.html.  Taubert Fritz (2003). The Myth of Munich. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 3486566733.  Tucker Robert C. (1992). Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above 19281941. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393308693.  Watson Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies (Taylor & Francis Ltd.) 52 (4): 695722. doi:10.1080/713663077. http://www.jstor.org/stable/153322.  Wettig Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0742555429.  Further reading Anton Antonov-Ovseenko. The Time of Stalin: Portrait of a Tyranny. Harpercollins 1983 (ISBN 0060390271) Brent Jonathan. Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co. 2008 (ISBN 0977743330) Introduction online Brent Jonathan; Naumov Vladimir Pavlovich. Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors 19481953. New York: HarperCollins 2003 (ISBN 0-06-019524-X); as Stalin's Last Crime: The Doctor's Plot. London: John Murray 2004 (ISBN 0-7195-6508-1). Broekmeyer Marius. Stalin the Russians and Their War 19411945. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press 2004 (ISBN 0-299-19590-2). Bullock Alan. Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives. London: HarperCollins 1991 (ISBN 0002154943). Boterbloem Kees. Life and Death under Stalin: Kalinin Province 19451953. Montreal Quebec; Kingston ON: McGill-Queen's University Press 1999 (ISBN 0-7735-1811-8). Robert Conquest. The Great Terror: A Reassessment. New York: Oxford University Press 1990 (ISBN 0-19-507132-8). Robert Conquest. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press 1986 (ISBN 0-19-505180-7). Davies Sarah; Harris James R. Stalin: A New History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2005 (ISBN 0-521-85104-1). Isaac Deutscher. Stalin: A Political Biography. New York: Oxford University Press 1967 (ISBN 0-19-500273-3); London: Penguin Books 1990 (ISBN 0140135049). Milovan ilas. Conversations With Stalin. Harcourt Trade Publishers New York 1962 (ISBN 0151225907) Orlando Figes. The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. Metropolitan Books 2007 (ISBN 0805074619) Gellately Robert. Lenin Stalin and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf August 2007 (ISBN 1400040051). Gill Graeme. Stalinism (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan 1998 (ISBN 0-312-17764-X). Jonge Alex de. Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union. New York: William Morrow 1986 (ISBN 0-688-04730-0); 1987 (ISBN 0688072917). Keep John L.H.; Litvin Alter L. Stalinism: Russian and Western Views at the Turn of the Millennium (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions). New York: Routledge 2004 (ISBN 0-415-35108-1) Kuromiya Hiroaki. Stalin. Harlow UK: Longman 2006 (ISBN 0-582-78479-4). Kuromiya Hiroaki. The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press 24 December 2007. ISBN 0300123892 The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc edited by Apor Balzs; Jan C. Behrends Polly Jones and E.A. Rees. Houndmills UK; New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2004 (ISBN 1-4039-3443-6). The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions) edited by Helmut Dubiel and Gabriel Motzkin. New York: Routledge 2004 (ISBN 0-7146-5493-0). Laqueur Walter. Stalin: The Glasnost Revelations. New York: Scribner 1990 (ISBN 0684192039). Mace James E. "The Man-Made Famine of 1933 in Soviet Ukraine" Famine in Ukraine 19321933: A Memorial Exhibition edited by Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko. Edmonton Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies 1986 (ISBN 0-920862-43-8) pp. 114. Mawdsley Evan. The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union 192953. Manchester: Manchester University Press 2003 (ISBN 0-7190-6377-9). McDermott Kevin. Stalin: Revolutionary in an Era of War (European History in Perspective). New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2006 (ISBN 0-333-71121-1). McLoughlin Barry and McDermott Kevin (eds). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Palgrave Macmillan 2002. ISBN 1403901198 Roy Medvedev; Zhores Medvedev The Unknown Stalin: His Life Death and Legacy. London: I.B. Tauris 2003 (ISBN 1-86064-768-5) Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5); New York: Vintage 2005 (ISBN 1400076781). Simon Sebag Montefiore. Young Stalin. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson 2007 (ISBN 9780297850687). An excerpt. Murphy David E. What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press 2005 (ISBN 0300107803). Norman Naimark Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press 2010. ISBN 0691147841 Richard Overy. Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. Allen Lane 2004 (ISBN 0-393-32797-3). Parrish Michael. The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security 19391953. Praeger Press 1996 (ISBN 0275951138) Richard Pipes. Communism: A History. Modern Library Chronicles 2001 (ISBN 0679640509) Priestland David. Stalin and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas Power and Terror in Inter-war Russia. New York: Oxford University Press (U.S.) 2006 (ISBN 0-19-924513-4). Edvard Radzinsky. Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives. Doubleday 1996 (ISBN 0-385-47397-4). Chapter 1. Redefining Stalinism (Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions) edited by Harold Shukman. New York: Routledge 2003 (ISBN 0-7146-5415-9). Ree Erik van. The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin: A Study in Twentieth-Century Revolutionary Patriotism. London; New York: Routledge Courzon 2002 (ISBN 0-7007-1749-8). Roberts Geoffrey. Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War 19391953. New Heaven CT; London: Yale University Press 2006 (ISBN 0300112041). Rosefielde Steven. Red Holocaust. Routledge 2009. (ISBN 0415777577) Rudolph Rummel Death By Government. New Brunswick N.J.: Transaction Publishers 1994 (ISBN 1560001453). Rudolph Rummel Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. New Brunswick N.J.: Transaction Publishers 1990 (ISBN 0887383335) Sandag Shagdariin; Kendall Harry H.; Wakeman Frederic E. Poisoned Arrows: The Stalin-Choibalsan Mongolian Massacres 19211941. Westview Press (October 1999). ISBN 0813337100 Service Robert. Stalin: A Biography. Cambridge MA: Belknap Press 2005 (ISBN 0-674-01697-1). Timothy Snyder. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books 2010. ISBN 0465002390 Boris Souvarine. Stalin: A Critical Survey of Bolshevism. Whitefish MT: Kessinger Publishing 2005 (ISBN 1-4191-1307-0)Online. Stalin's Terror Revisited. Edited by Melanie Ilic and Stephen G. Wheatcroft. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2006 (ISBN 1-4039-4705-8). Robert C. Tucker Stalin as Revolutionary 18791929: A Study in History and Personality. (W.W. Norton 1973) online edition Robert C. Tucker Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above 19281941. New York: W.W. Norton 1990 (ISBN 0-393-02881-X). Tzouliadis Tim. The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia. The Penguin Press 2008 (ISBN 1594201684) Ulam Adam Bruno. Stalin: The Man and His Era. Boston: Beacon Press 1989 (ISBN 0-8070-7005-X) Vaksberg Arkady. The Murder of Maxim Gorky. A Secret Execution. (Enigma Books: New York 2007. ISBN 978-1-929631-62-9.) Dmitri Volkogonov (Author); Shukman Harold (Editor Translator). Autopsy for an Empire: the Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime. Free Press 1998 (ISBN 0684834200) Ward Chris. The Stalinist Dictatorship. London: Arnold Publishers 1998 (ISBN 0-340-70640-6). Ward Chris. "Stalin Through Seventeenth-Century Eyes" Journal of European Studies Vol. 36 No. 2. (2006) pp. 181200. Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev (Author); Austin Anthony (Translator). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press 2002 (ISBN 0300087608) External links Find more about Joseph Stalin on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Stalin Library (with all 13 volumes of Stalin's works and "volume 14") Library of Congress: Revelations from the Russian Archives Electronic archive of Stalin's letters and presentations Sovetika.ru  A site about the Soviet era (Russian) "Another view of Stalin" 123 by Ludo Martens Progressive Labor Party website "The Revolution Betrayed" by Leon Trotsky Stalin and the 'Cult of Personality' Stalin Biography from Spartacus Educational A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin "Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform Part One" and "Part Two" by Grover Furr. Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana Modern History Sourcebook: Stalin's Reply to Churchill 1946 Modern History Sourcebook: Nikita S. Khrushchev: The Secret Speech On the Cult of Personality 1956 The political economy of Stalinism: evidence from the Soviet secret archives / Paul R. Gregory "Demographic catastrophes of the 20th century" chapter from Demographic Modernization in Russia 19002000 ed. A. G. Vishnevsky 2006 ISBN 5983790420  estimates of the human cost of Stalin's rule Annotated bibliography for Joseph Stalin from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues "Secret documents reveal Stalin was poisoned" study by the Russian paper Pravda of events behind possible death by poisoning Over 2000 original German WWII soldier photographs from the Eastern Front Central Intelligence Agency Office of Current Intelligence. Death of Stalin 16 July 1953. How Many Did Stalin Really Murder by Professor R.J. Rummel Death of the Butcher by Hoover fellow Arnold Beichman A secret revealed: Stalin's police killed Americans (1997 Associated Press article) Stalin giving a speech in Russian with English subtitles The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1986) Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse by Timothy Snyder Authority control: LCCN: n80044789 Political offices Preceded by None People's Commissar of Nationalities of the RSFSR 19171923 Succeeded by Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Council of People's Commissars until 1946 19411953 Succeeded by Georgy Malenkov Preceded by Semyon Timoshenko Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union People's Commissar until 1946 19411947 Succeeded by Nikolai Bulganin Preceded by None Chairman of the State Defense Committee 19411945 Succeeded by None Party political offices Preceded by None General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 19221953 Succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev Military offices Preceded by None Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 19451953 Succeeded by None  Articles and topics related to Joseph Stalin v d eJoseph Stalin History and politics Early life  Russian Revolution Russian Civil War Polish-Soviet War  Rise  Rule as Soviet leader  Collectivization  World War II  MolotovRibbentrop Pact  Winter War  Occupation of the Baltic states  Invasion of Poland  GermanSoviet Axis talks  SovietJapanese Neutrality Pact  Tehran Conference  Yalta Conference  Potsdam Conference  Cold War  SinoSoviet Treaty of Friendship  Eastern Bloc  TitoStalin split Concepts Stalinism  Neo-Stalinism  Socialism in One Country  Socialist realism  Stalinist architecture  Aggravation of class struggle under socialism  Transformation of nature Controversies Great Purge  Holodomor  Gulags  Decossackization  Population transfer (NaziSoviet)  Forced settlement  Soviet war crimes  Rootless cosmopolitan  Doctors' plot  Moscow Trials  Allegations of antisemitism  NKVD 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Young (1929)  Mahatma Gandhi (1930)  Pierre Laval (1931)  Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932)  Hugh Samuel Johnson (1933)  Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934)  Haile Selassie I (1935)  Wallis Simpson (1936)  Chiang Kai-shek / Soong May-ling (1937)  Adolf Hitler (1938)  Joseph Stalin (1939)  Winston Churchill (1940)  Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941)  Joseph Stalin (1942)  George Marshall (1943)  Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944)  Harry S. Truman (1945)  James F. Byrnes (1946)  George Marshall (1947)  Harry S. Truman (1948)  Winston Churchill (1949)  The American Fighting-Man (1950)  19511975 Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951)  Elizabeth II (1952)  Konrad Adenauer (1953)  John Foster Dulles (1954)  Harlow Curtice (1955)  Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956)  Nikita Khrushchev (1957)  Charles de Gaulle (1958)  Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959)  U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. 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Johnson (1967)  The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968)  The Middle Americans (1969)  Willy Brandt (1970)  Richard Nixon (1971)  Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972)  John Sirica (1973)  King Faisal (1974)  American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Carol Sutton / Susie Sharp / Addie Wyatt (1975)  19762000 Jimmy Carter (1976)  Anwar Sadat (1977)  Deng Xiaoping (1978)  Ayatollah Khomeini (1979)  Ronald Reagan (1980)  Lech Wasa (1981)  The Computer (1982)  Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983)  Peter Ueberroth (1984)  Deng Xiaoping (1985)  Corazon Aquino (1986)  Mikhail Gorbachev (1987)  The Endangered Earth (1988)  Mikhail Gorbachev (1989)  George H. W. Bush (1990)  Ted Turner (1991)  Bill Clinton (1992)  The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993)  Pope John Paul II (1994)  Newt Gingrich (1995)  David Ho (1996)  Andrew Grove (1997)  Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998)  Jeffrey P. Bezos (1999)  George W. Bush (2000)  2001present Rudolph Giuliani (2001)  The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002)  The American Soldier (2003)  George W. Bush (2004)  The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005)  You (2006)  Vladimir Putin (2007)  Barack Obama (2008)  Ben Bernanke (2009)  Mark Zuckerberg (2010) Book:Time Persons of the Year v d ePeople from Russia Leaders & Religious Pre-1168  11681917  19221991  1991present  RSFSR leaders  General secretaries  Soviet premiers (1st deputies)  Soviet heads of state (and their spouses)  Prime ministers (1st deputies)  Foreign ministers  Prosecutors general  Metropolitans and patriarchs  Saints Military & Explorers Field marshals  Soviet marshals  Admirals  Aviators  Cosmonauts Scientists & Inventors Aerospace engineers  Astronomers and astrophysicists  Biologists  Chemists  Earth scientists  Electrical engineers  IT developers  Linguists and philologists  Mathematicians  Naval engineers  Physicians and psychologists  Physicists  Weaponry makers Artists & Writers Architects  Ballet dancers  Composers  Opera singers  Novelists  Philosophers  Playwrights  Poets Sportspeople Chess players Persondata Name Stalin Jossif Wissarionowitsch Alternative names Josef Stalin (Russian) Jossif Wissarionowitsch Dschugaschwili (Georgian birthname) Short description Dictator of the Soviet Union (19271953) Date of birth 18 December 1878(1878-12-18) Place of birth Gori Georgia Date of death 5 March 1953(1953-03-05) Place of death Moscow Russia