This article is about the Jewish religion. For consideration of ethnic historic and cultural aspects of the Jewish identity see Jews. Judaica (clockwise from top): Shabbat candlesticks handwashing cup Chumash and Tanakh Torah pointer shofar and etrog box Part of a series on Judaism Portal Category Jewish religious movements Orthodox (Haredi  Hasidic  Modern) Conservative  Reform Karaite  Reconstructionist  Renewal  Humanistic Jewish philosophy Principles of faith  Kabbalah  Messiah  Ethics Chosenness  Names of God  Musar Religious texts Tanakh (Torah  Nevi'im  Ketuvim) umash  Siddur  Piyutim  Zohar Rabbinic literature (Talmud  Midrash  Tosefta) Religious Law Mishneh Torah  Tur Shulchan Aruch  Mishnah Berurah Kashrut  Tzniut  Tzedakah  Niddah  Noahide laws Holy cities Jerusalem  Safed  Hebron  Tiberias Important figures Abraham  Isaac  Jacob Moses  Aaron  David  Solomon Sarah  Rebecca  Rachel   Leah Rabbinic sages Jewish life cycle Brit  Pidyon haben  Bar/Bat Mitzvah Marriage  Bereavement Religious roles Rabbi  Rebbe  Posek  Hazzan/Cantor Dayan  Rosh yeshiva  Mohel  Kohen/Priest Religious buildings & institutions Synagogue  Beth midrash  Mikveh Sukkah  Chevra kadisha Holy Temple / Tabernacle Jewish education Yeshiva  Kollel  Cheder Religious articles Sefer Torah  Tallit  Tefillin  Tzitzit  Kippah Mezuzah  Hanukiah/Menorah  Shofar 4 Species  Kittel  Gartel Jewish prayers and services Shema  Amidah  Aleinu  Kaddish  Minyan Birkat Hamazon  Shehecheyanu  Hallel Havdalah  Tachanun  Kol Nidre  Selichot Judaism & other religions Christianity  Islam  Judeo-Christian Abrahamic faiths  Pluralism  Others Related topics Antisemitism  Criticism  Holocaust  Israel  Zionism v d e

Judaism is the "religion philosophy and way of life" of the Jewish people.1 Originating in the Hebrew Bible (also known as the Tanakh) and explored in later texts such as the Talmud it is considered by Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship God developed with the Children of Israel. According to traditional Rabbinic Judaism God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah.2 This was historically challenged by the Karaites a movement that flourished in the medieval period retains several thousand followers today and maintains that only the Written Torah was revealed.3 In modern times liberal movements such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic.4

Judaism claims a historical continuity spanning more than 3000 years. It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions5 and the oldest to survive into the present day.67 The Hebrews / Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther with the term Jews replacing the title "Children of Israel."8 Judaism's texts traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions including Christianity Islam and the Baha'i Faith.910 Many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law.11

Jews are an ethnoreligious group12 and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2010 the world Jewish population was estimated at 13.4 million or roughly 0.2% of the total world population. About 42% of all Jews reside in Israel and about 42% reside in the United States and Canada with most of the remainder living in Europe.13 The largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Hareidi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism) Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. A major source of difference between these groups is their approach to Jewish law.14 Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin eternal and unalterable and that they should be strictly followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more "traditional" interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews.1516 Historically special courts enforced Jewish law; today these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary.17 Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization but in the sacred texts and the many rabbis and scholars who interpret these texts.18 Contents 1 Defining character and principles of faith 1.1 Defining character 1.2 Core tenets 2 Jewish religious texts 2.1 Jewish legal literature 2.2 Jewish philosophy 2.3 Rabbinic hermeneutics 3 Jewish identity 3.1 Origin of the term "Judaism" 3.2 Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism 3.3 Who is a Jew 3.4 Jewish demographics 4 Jewish religious movements 4.1 Rabbinic Judaism 4.1.1 Jewish movements in Israel 4.2 Alternative Judaism 5 Jewish observances 5.1 Jewish ethics 5.2 Prayers 5.3 Religious clothing 5.4 Jewish holidays 5.4.1 Shabbat 5.4.2 Three pilgrimage festivals 5.4.3 High Holy Days 5.4.4 Hanukkah 5.4.5 Purim 5.4.6 Other holidays 5.5 Torah readings 5.6 Synagogues and religious buildings 5.7 Dietary laws: Kashrut 5.8 Laws of ritual purity 5.8.1 Family purity 5.9 Life-cycle events 6 Community leadership 6.1 Classical priesthood 6.2 Prayer leaders 6.3 Specialized religious roles 7 History 7.1 Origins 7.2 Antiquity 7.3 Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700) 7.4 Persecutions 7.5 Hasidism 7.6 The Enlightenment and New Religious Movements 7.7 Spectrum of observance 8 Judaism and other religions 8.1 Christianity and Judaism 8.2 Islam and Judaism 8.3 Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Defining character and principles of faith Defining character Glass platter inscribed with the Hebrew word zakhreinu - we will remember

Unlike other ancient Near Eastern gods the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods but with the world and more specifically with the people He created.19 Judaism thus begins with an ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one and concerned with the actions of humankind.20 According to the Hebrew Bible God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation.21 Many generations later he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world.22 He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is Jews are to imitate God's love for people.23 These commandments are but two of a large corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant which is the substance of Judaism.

Thus although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism (Kabbalah) Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as "normal mysticism" because it involves every-day personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews.24 This is played out through the observance of the halakhot and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled. The ordinary familiar everyday things and occurrences we have constitute occasions for the experience of God. Such things as one's daily sustenance the very day itself are felt as manifestations of God's loving-kindness calling for the Berakhot. Kedushah holiness which is nothing else than the imitation of God is concerned with daily conduct with being gracious and merciful with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry adultery and the shedding of blood. The Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character while the several holy objects are non-theurgic. And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that experience evil as well as good for a Berakah is said also at evil tidings. Hence although the experience of God is like none other the occasions for experiencing Him for having a consciousness of Him are manifold even if we consider only those that call for Berakot.25

Whereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether God is immanent or transcendent and whether people have free will or their lives are determined Halakha is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world.

Ethical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism. However monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Jewish Bible (Tanakh) records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient Israel.26 In the Greco-Roman era many different interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism including the interpretations that gave rise to Christianity.27

Moreover as a non-creedal religion some have argued that Judaism does not require one to believe in God. For some observance of Jewish law is more important than belief in God per se.28 In modern times some liberal Jewish movements do not accept the existence of a personified deity active in history.29 Core tenets Main article: Jewish principles of faith

13 Principles of Faith: I believe with perfect faith that the Creator Blessed be His Name is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made does make and will make all things. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator Blessed be His Name is One and that there is no unity in any manner like His and that He alone is our God who was and is and will be. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator Blessed be His Name has no body and that He is free from all the properties of matter and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator Blessed be His Name is the first and the last. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator Blessed be His Name and to Him alone it is right to pray and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher peace be upon him was true and that he was the chief of the prophets both those who preceded him and those who followed him. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher peace be upon him. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator Blessed be His Name. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator Blessed be His Name knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts as it is written "Who fashioned the hearts of them all Who comprehends all their actions" (Psalms 33:15). I believe with perfect faith that the Creator Blessed be His Name rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry nonetheless I wait every day for his coming. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator Blessed be His name and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever. -Maimonides Scholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets all of which have met with criticism.30 The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith developed in the 12th century. According to Maimonides any Jew to reject even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.3132 Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides' principles.3334 In Maimonides' time his list of tenets was criticized by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo. Albo and the Raavad argued that Maimonides' principles contained too many items that while true were not fundamentals of the faith. Along these lines the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs associating apostasy with a failure to observe Jewish law and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs. Maimonides' principles were largely ignored over the next few centuries.35 Later two poetic restatements of these principles ("Ani Ma'amin" and "Yigdal") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies36citation needed leading to their eventual near-universal acceptance.3738 In modern times Judaism lacks a centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma.1839 Because of this many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism.33 Even so all Jewish religious movements are to a greater or lesser extent based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible and various commentaries such as the Talmud and Midrash. Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical Covenant between God and the Patriarch Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to Moses who is considered Judaism's greatest prophet.3340414243 In the Mishnah a core text of Rabbinic Judaism acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the World to Come.44 Jewish religious texts The following is a basic structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought. Tanakh45 (Hebrew Bible) and commentaries Main article: Rabbinic literature Mesorah Targum Jewish Biblical exegesis (also see Midrash below) Works of the Talmudic Era (classic rabbinic literature) Mishnah and commentaries Tosefta and the minor tractates Talmud: The Babylonian Talmud and commentaries Jerusalem Talmud and commentaries Midrashic literature: Halakhic Midrash Aggadic Midrash Halakhic literature Major Codes of Jewish Law and Custom Mishneh Torah and commentaries Tur and commentaries Shulchan Aruch and commentaries Responsa literature Jewish Thought and Ethics Jewish philosophy Kabbalah Hasidic works Musar literature and other works of Jewish ethics Siddur and Jewish liturgy Piyyut (Classical Jewish poetry) Jewish legal literature Main article: Halakha The basis of Jewish law and tradition (halakha) is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition there are 613 commandments in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women some only to the ancient priestly groups the Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi) some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed and fewer than 300 of these commandments are still applicable today. While there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were claimed to be based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g. the Sadducees and the Karaites) most Jews believed in what they call the oral law. These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee sect of ancient Judaism and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis. Rabbinic Judaism (which derives from the Pharisees) has always held that the books of the Torah (called the written law) have always been transmitted in parallel with an oral tradition. To justify this viewpoint Jews point to the text of the Torah where many words are left undefined and many procedures mentioned without explanation or instructions; this they argue means that the reader is assumed to be familiar with the details from other i.e. oral sources. This parallel set of material was originally transmitted orally and came to be known as "the oral law". By the time of Rabbi Judah haNasi (200 CE) after the destruction of Jerusalem much of this material was edited together into the Mishnah. Over the next four centuries this law underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in Israel and Babylonia) and the commentaries on the Mishnah from each of these communities eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the two Talmuds. These have been expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages. Halakha the rabbinic Jewish way of life then is based on a combined reading of the Torah and the oral tradition - the Mishnah the halakhic Midrash the Talmud and its commentaries. The Halakha has developed slowly through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis and their considered answers is referred to as responsa (in Hebrew Sheelot U-Teshuvot.) Over time as practices develop codes of Jewish law are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code the Shulchan Aruch largely determines Orthodox religious practice today. Jewish philosophy Main article: Jewish philosophy Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers include Solomon ibn Gabirol Saadia Gaon Judah Halevi Maimonides and Gersonides. Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler Joseph B. Soloveitchik and Yitzchok Hutner. Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber Franz Rosenzweig Mordecai Kaplan Abraham Joshua Heschel Will Herberg and Emmanuel Lvinas. Related Topics Torah databases (electronic versions of the Traditional Jewish Bookshelf) List of Jewish prayers and blessings Rabbinic hermeneutics 13 Principles of Hermeneutics: A law that operates under certain conditions will surely be operative in other situations where the same conditions are present in a more acute form A law operating in one situation will also be operative in another situation if the text characterizes both situations in identical terms. A law that clearly expresses the purpose it was meant to serve will also apply to other situations where the identical purpose may be served. When a general rule is followed by illustrative particulars only those particulars are to be embraced by it. A law that begins with specifying particular cases and then proceeds to an all-embracing generalization is to be applied to particulars cases not specified but logically falling into the same generalization. A law that begins with a generalization as to its intended applications then continues with the specification of particular cases and then concludes with a restatement of the generalization can be applied only to the particular cases specified. The rules about a generalization being followed or preceded by specifying particulars (rules 4 and 5) will not apply if it is apparent that the specification of the particular cases or the statement of the generalization is meant purely for achieving a greater clarity of language. A particular case already covered in a generalization that is nevertheless treated separately suggests that the same particularized treatment be applied to all other cases which are covered in that generalization. A penalty specified for a general category of wrong-doing is not to be automatically applied to a particular case that is withdrawn from the general rule to be specifically prohibited but without any mention of the penalty. A general prohibition followed by a specified penalty may be followed by a particular case normally included in the generalization with a modification in penalty either toward easing it or making it more severe. A case logically falling into a general law but treated separately remains outside the provisions of the general law except in those instances where it is specifically included in them. Obscurities in Biblical texts may be cleared up from the immediate context or from subsequently occurring passages Contradictions in Biblical passages may be removed through the mediation of other passages. -R. Ishmael46 Orthodox and many other Jews do not believe that the revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents but of its interpretations as well. The study of Torah (in its widest sense to include both poetry narrative and law and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of the Mishnah and Talmud and for their successors today the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to learn the contents of God's revelation but an end in itself. According to the Talmud These are the things for which a person enjoys the dividends in this world while the principal remains for the person to enjoy in the world to come; they are: honoring parents loving deeds of kindness and making peace between one person and another. But the study of the Torah is equal to them all. (Talmud Shabbat 127a). In Judaism "the study of Torah can be a means of experiencing God".47 Reflecting on the contribution of the Amoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism Professor Jacob Neusner observed: The rabbi's logical and rational inquiry is not mere logic-chopping. It is a most serious and substantive effort to locate in trivialities the fundamental principles of the revealed will of God to guide and sanctify the most specific and concrete actions in the workaday world .... Here is the mystery of Talmudic Judaism: the alien and remote conviction that the intellect is an instrument not of unbelief and desacralization but of sanctification."48 To study the Written Torah and the Oral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study how to study the word of God. In the study of Torah the sages formulated and followed various logical and hermeneutical principles. According to David Stern all Rabbinic hermeneutics rest on two basic axia: first the belief in the omnisignificance of Scripture in the meaningfulness of its every word letter even (according to one famous report) scribal flourish; second the claim of the essential unity of Scripture as the expression of the single divine will.49 These two principles make possible a great variety of interpretations. According to the Talmud A single verse has several meanings but no two verses hold the same meaning. It was taught in the school of R. Ishmael: 'Behold My word is like firedeclares the Lordand like a hammer that shatters rock' (Jer 23:29). Just as this hammer produces many sparks (when it strikes the rock) so a single verse has several meanings." (Talmud Sanhedrin 34a). Observant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic because it contains within it a host of interpretations50 According to Rabbinic tradition all valid interpretations of the written Torah were revealed to Moses at Sinai in oral form and handed down from teacher to pupil (The oral revelation is in effect coextensive with the Talmud itself). When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interpretations they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic principles to legitimize their arguments; some rabbis claim that these principles were themselves revealed by God to Moses at Sinai.51 Thus Hillel called attention to seven commonly used in the interpretation of laws (baraita at the beginning of Sifra); R. Ishmael thirteen (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is largely an amplification of that of Hillel).52 Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili listed 32 largely used for the exegesis of narrative elements of Torah. All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the Talmudim and Midrashim have been collected by Malbim in Ayyelet ha-Shachar the introduction to his commentary on the Sifra. Nevertheless R. Ishmael's 13 principles are perhaps the ones most widely known; they constitute an important and one of Judaism's earliest contributions to logic hermeneutics and jurisprudence.53 Judah Hadassi incorporated Ishmael's principles into Karaite Judaism in the 12th century.54 Today R. Ishmael's 13 principles are incorporated into the Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a daily basis.55565758 Jewish identity Origin of the term "Judaism" The term Judaism derives from the Latin Iudaismus derived from the Greek Ioudasmos and ultimately from the Hebrew Yehudah "Judah";5960 in Hebrew: Yahadut. It first appears as the Hellenistic Greek iudaismos in 2nd Maccabees in the 2nd century BCE. In the context of the age and period it held the meaning of seeking or forming part of a cultural entity that of iudea the Greek derivative of Persian Yehud and can be compared with hellenismos meaning acceptance of Hellenic cultural norms (the conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind the Maccabeean revolt and hence the invention of the term iudaismos).61 The earliest instance of the term in English used to mean "the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews" is Robert Fabyan's The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce a 1513. As an English translation of the Latin the first instance in English is a 1611 translation of the Apocrypha(Deuterocanon in Catholic and Orthodox Christianity) 2 Macc. ii. 21 "Those that behaved themselues manfully to their honour for Iudaisme."62 Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism According to Daniel Boyarin the underlying distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism itself and is one form of the dualism between spirit and flesh that has its origin in Platonic philosophy and that permeated Hellenistic Judaism.63 Consequently in his view Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories such as religion ethnicity or culture. Boyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of Judaism's more than 3000-year history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West (that is Europe particularly medieval and modern Europe). During this time Jews have experienced slavery anarchic and theocratic self-government conquest occupation and exile; in the Diasporas they have been in contact with and have been influenced by ancient Egyptian Babylonian Persian and Hellenic cultures as well as modern movements such as the Enlightenment (see Haskalah) and the rise of nationalism which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in the Levant. They also saw an elite convert to Judaism (the Khazars) only to disappear as the centers of power in the lands once occupied by that elite fell to the people of Rus and then the Mongols. Thus Boyarin has argued that "Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity because it is not national not genealogical not religious but all of these in dialectical tension."64 In contrast to this point of view practices such as Humanistic Judaism reject the religious aspects of Judaism while retaining certain cultural traditions. Who is a Jew Main article: Who is a Jew According to traditional Jewish Law a Jew is anyone born of a Jewish mother or converted to Judaism in accordance with Jewish Law. American Reform Judaism and British Liberal Judaism accept the child of one Jewish parent (father or mother) as Jewish if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity. All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge.65 Converts are given the name "ben Abraham" or "bat Abraham" (son or daughter of Abraham). Traditional Judaism maintains that a Jew whether by birth or conversion is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. However the Reform movement maintains that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew6667 and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes.68 The question of what determines Jewish identity in the State of Israel was given new impetus when in the 1950s David Ben-Gurion requested opinions on mihu Yehudi ("who is a Jew") from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citizenship questions. This is still not settled and occasionally resurfaces in Israeli politics. Jewish demographics Main article: Jewish population The total number of Jews worldwide is difficult to assess because the definition of "who is a Jew" is problematic; not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews. According to the Jewish Year Book (1901) the global Jewish population in 1900 was around 11 million. The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population Survey of 2002 and the Jewish Year Calendar (2005). In 2002 according to the Jewish Population Survey there were 13.3 million Jews around the world. The Jewish Year Calendar cites 14.6 million. Jewish population growth is currently near zero percent with 0.3% growth from 2000 to 2001. Jewish religious movements Main article: Jewish religious movements Rabbinic Judaism Rabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions Rabbinism) (Hebrew: "Yahadut Rabanit" - ) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and by the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law (called halakha "the way"). The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox Conservative and Reform. Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch (a condensed codification of halakha that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of Jewish law. Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith. Orthodoxy is often divided into Modern Orthodox Judaism and Haredi Judaism. Haredi Judaism is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines and it may be distinguished from Modern Orthodox Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism include: Hasidic Judaism which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a Rebbe or religious teacher; and Sephardic Haredi Judaism which emerged among Sephardic (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel. Conservative Judaism known as Masorti outside the United States and Canada is characterized by a commitment to traditional Jewish laws and customs including observance of Shabbat and kashrut a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith a positive attitude toward modern culture and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that Jewish law is not static but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses.6970 Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions. Reform Judaism called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries defines Judaism as a religion rather than as a race or culture rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition. A Reform synagogue with mixed seating and equal participation of men and women Reconstructionist Judaism like Reform Judaism does not hold that Jewish law as such requires observance but unlike Reform Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow. Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of Jewish law. Men and women participate equally in prayer. Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity. Jewish movements in Israel Main article: Religion in Israel Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as "secular" (hiloni) "traditional" (masorti) "religious" (dati) or Haredi. The term "secular" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform Conservative). The term "traditional" (masorti) is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of "eastern" origin (i.e. the Middle East Central Asia and North Africa). This term as commonly used has nothing to do with the official Masorti (Conservative) movement. There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways "secular" and "traditional" are used in Israel: they often overlap and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of ideology and religious observance. The term "Orthodox" is not popular in Israeli discourse although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the diaspora. What would be called "Orthodox" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called dati (religious) or haredi (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel. The former term includes what is called "Religious Zionism" or the "National Religious" community as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as haredi-leumi (nationalist haredi) or "Hardal" which combines a largely haredi lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people in Yiddish also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as frum as opposed to frei (more liberal Jews)). Haredi applies to a populace that can be roughly divided into three separate groups along both ethnic and ideological lines: (1) "Lithuanian" (non-hasidic) haredim of Ashkenazic origin; (2) Hasidic haredim of Ashkenazic origin; and (3) Sephardic haredim. Alternative Judaism Main article: Alternative Judaism Karaite Judaism defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the Second Temple period such as the Sadducees. The Karaites ("Scripturalists") accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the Peshat ("simple" meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all although most do. The Samaritans a very small community located entirely around Mount Gerizim in the Nablus/Shechem region of the West Bank and in Holon near Tel Aviv in Israel regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of the Iron Age kingdom of Israel. Their religious practices are those of Judaism but they regard only the written Torah as authoritative scripture (with a special regard also for the Book of Joshua). Jewish observances Jewish ethics Main article: Jewish ethics Jewish ethics may be guided by halakhic traditions by other moral principles or by central Jewish virtues. Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as justice truth peace loving-kindness (chesed) compassion humility and self-respect. Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity (tzedakah) and refraining from negative speech (lashon hara). Proper ethical practices regarding sexuality and many other issues are subjects of dispute among Jews. Prayers Main article: Jewish services A Yemenite Jew at morning prayers wearing a kippah skullcap prayer shawl and tefillin Traditionally Jews recite prayers three times daily Shacharit Mincha and Ma'ariv with a fourth prayer Mussaf added on Shabbat and holidays. At the heart of each service is the Amidah or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith the Shema Yisrael (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the Torah (Deuteronomy 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad"Hear O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!" Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult Jews called a minyan. In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles only male Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well. In addition to prayer services observant traditional Jews recite prayers and benedictions throughout the day when performing various acts. Prayers are recited upon waking up in the morning before eating or drinking different foods after eating a meal and so on. The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. Differences can include the texts of prayers the frequency of prayer the number of prayers recited at various religious events the use of musical instruments and choral music and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. In general Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Also in most Conservative synagogues and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations women participate in prayer services on an equal basis with men including roles traditionally filled only by men such as reading from the Torah. In addition many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs. Religious clothing Further information: kippah tzitzit and tefillin A kippah (Hebrew: plural kippot; Yiddish: yarmulke) is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying eating reciting blessings or studying Jewish religious texts and at all times by some Jewish men. In Orthodox communities only men wear kippot; in non-Orthodox communities some women also wear kippot. Kippot range in size from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head to a large snug cap that covers the whole crown. Tzitzit (Hebrew: ) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tzitzis) are special knotted "fringes" or "tassels" found on the four corners of the tallit (Hebrew: ) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tallis) or prayer shawl. The tallit is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service. Customs vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit. In the Sephardi community boys wear a tallit from bar mitzvah age. In some Ashkenazi communities it is customary to wear one only after marriage. A tallit katan (small tallit) is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day. In some Orthodox circles the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing. Tefillin (Hebrew: ) known in English as phylacteries (from the Greek word meaning fortress or protection) are two square leather boxes containing biblical verses attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps. They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men and some Jewish women.71 A kittel (Yiddish: ) a white knee-length overgarment is worn by prayer leaders and some observant traditional Jews on the High Holidays. It is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover seder in some communities and some grooms wear one under the wedding canopy. Jewish males are buried in a tallit and sometimes also a kittel which are part of the tachrichim (burial garments). Jewish holidays Main article: Jewish holiday Jewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar which celebrate moments in Jewish history as well as central themes in the relationship between God and the world such as creation revelation and redemption. Shabbat Main article: Shabbat Two braided Shabbat challahs placed under an embroidered challah cover at the start of the Shabbat meal Shabbat the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly before sundown on Friday night to nightfall Saturday night commemorates God's day of rest after six days of creation.72 It plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law. At sundown on Friday the woman of the house welcomes the Shabbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing. The evening meal begins with the Kiddush a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine and the Mohtzi a blessing recited over the bread. It is customary to have challah two braided loaves of bread on the table. During Shabbat Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under 39 categories of melakhah translated literally as "work". In fact the activities banned on the Sabbath are not "work" in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a fire writing using money and carrying in the public domain. The prohibition of lighting a fire has been extended in the modern era to driving a car which involves burning fuel and using electricity. Three pilgrimage festivals Main article: Shalosh regalim Sukkahs in Jerusalem Jewish holy days (chaggim) celebrate landmark events in Jewish history such as the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals Sukkot Passover and Shavuot are called "regalim" (derived from the Hebrew word "regel" or foot). On the three regalim it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple. Passover (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar) that commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. Outside Israel Passover is celebrated for eight days. In ancient times it coincided with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service the Seder. Leavened products (chametz) are removed from the house prior to the holiday and are not consumed throughout the week. Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder. Matzo is eaten instead of bread. Shavuot ("Pentecost" or "Feast of Weeks") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim or first fruits it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites) reading the Book of Ruth decorating homes and synagogues with greenery and wearing white clothing symbolizing purity. Sukkot ("Tabernacles" or "The Festival of Booths") commemorates the Israelites' forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot (sing. sukkah) that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret where Jews begin to pray for rain and Simchat Torah "Rejoicing of the Torah" a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot. High Holy Days Main article: High Holidays Jews praying in a synagogue on Yom Kippur from an 1878 painting by Maurycy Gottlieb The High Holidays (Yamim Noraim or "Days of Awe") revolve around judgment and forgiveness. Rosh Hashanah (also Yom Ha-Zikkaron or "Day of Remembrance" and Yom Teruah or "Day of the Sounding of the Shofar"). Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year (literally "head of the year") although it falls on the first day of the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar Tishri. Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the 10-day period of atonement leading up to Yom Kippur during which Jews are commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed intentionally or not throughout the year. Holiday customs include blowing the shofar or ram's horn in the synagogue eating apples and honey and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods such as pomegranates. Yom Kippur ("Day of Atonement") is the holiest day of the Jewish year. It is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for one's sins. Observant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue sometimes with a short break in the afternoon reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a "Machzor". Many non-religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on Yom Kippur. On the eve of Yom Kippur before candles are lit a prefast meal the "seuda mafseket" is eaten. Synagogue services on the eve of Yom Kippur begin with the Kol Nidre prayer. It is customary to wear white on Yom Kippur especially for Kol Nidre and leather shoes are not worn. The following day prayers are held from morning to evening. The final prayer service called "Ne'ilah" ends with a long blast of the shofar. Hanukkah Main article: Hanukkah Hanukkah (Hebrew: "dedication") also known as the Festival of Lights is an eight day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of Kislev (Hebrew calendar). The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights one on the first night two on the second night and so on. The holiday was called Hanukkah (meaning "dedication") because it marks the re-dedication of the Temple after its desecration by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Spiritually Hanukkah commemorates the "Miracle of the Oil". According to the Talmud at the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem following the victory of the Maccabees over the Seleucid Empire there was only enough consecrated oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. Miraculously the oil burned for eight days - which was the length of time it took to press prepare and consecrate new oil. Hanukkah is not mentioned in the Bible and was never considered a major holiday in Judaism but it has become much more visible and widely celebrated in modern times mainly because it falls around the same time as Christmas and has national Jewish overtones that have been emphasized since the establishment of the State of Israel. Purim Main article: Purim Purim street scene in Jerusalem Purim (Hebrew: (helpinfo) Prm "lots") is a joyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from the plot of the evil Haman who sought to exterminate them as recorded in the biblical Book of Esther. It is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther mutual gifts of food and drink charity to the poor and a celebratory meal (Esther 9:22). Other customs include drinking wine eating special pastries called hamantashen dressing up in masks and costumes and organizing carnivals and parties. Purim is celebrated annually on the 14th of the Hebrew month of Adar which occurs in February or March of the Gregorian calendar. Other holidays Main article: Tisha B'Av Main articles: Yom Hashoah and Yom Ha'atzmaut Tisha B'Av (Hebrew: or "the Ninth of Av") is a holiday of mourning and fasting commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples and the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. The modern holidays of Yom Ha-shoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day) and Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) commemorate the horrors of the Holocaust and the achievement of Israel independence respectively. Torah readings Main article: Torah reading The core of festival and Shabbat prayer services is the public reading of the Torah along with connected readings from the other books of the Tanakh called Haftarah. Over the course of a year the whole Torah is read with the cycle starting over in the autumn on Simchat Torah. Synagogues and religious buildings Main article: Synagogue Interior of the Esnoga synagogue in Amsterdam Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. They usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary) smaller rooms for study and often an area for community or educational use. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. The Reform movement mostly refer to their synagogues as temples. Some traditional features of a synagogue are: The ark (called aron ha-kodesh by Ashkenazim and hekhal by Sephardim) where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (parochet) outside or inside the ark doors); The elevated reader's platform (called bimah by Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim) where the Torah is read (and services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues); The eternal light (ner tamid) a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem The pulpit or amud a lectern facing the Ark where the hazzan or prayer leader stands while praying. In addition to synagogues other buildings of significance in Judaism include yeshivas or institutions of Jewish learning and mikvahs which are ritual baths. Dietary laws: Kashrut Main article: Kashrut The Jewish dietary laws are known as kashrut. Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher and food that is not kosher is also known as treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be "keeping kosher".73 Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example in order to be considered kosher mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal.74 Although it has split hooves it does not chew its cud.75 For seafood to be kosher the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood such as shellfish crustaceans and eels are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However traditions exist about the kashrut status of a few birds. For example both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals such as amphibians reptiles and most insects are prohibited altogether.73 In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as shechitah. Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered treif. The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood some fats and the area in and around the sciatic nerve.73 Jewish law also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together. The waiting period between eating meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community and can extend for up to six hours. Based on the Biblical injunction against cooking a kid in its mother's milk this rule is mostly derived from the Oral Torah the Talmud and Rabbinic law.73 Chicken and other kosher birds are considered the same as meat under the laws of kashrut but the prohibition is Rabbinic not Biblical.76 The use of dishes serving utensils and ovens may make food treif that would otherwise be kosher. Utensils that have been used to prepare non-kosher food or dishes that have held meat and are now used for dairy products render the food treif under certain conditions.73 Furthermore all Orthodox and some Conservative authorities forbid the consumption of processed grape products made by non-Jews due to ancient pagan practices of using wine in rituals.73 Some Conservative authorities permit wine and grape juice made without rabbinic supervision.77 The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of kashrut.73 However a number of explanations have been offered including maintaining ritual purity teaching impulse control encouraging obedience to God improving health reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community.78 The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because according to the Torah this is where animal souls are contained.79 In contrast the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because "they are unclean."80 The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating.81 Survival concerns supersede all the laws of kashrut as they do for most halakhot.8283 Laws of ritual purity Main article: Tumah The Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is tahor or ritually pure may become tamei or ritually impure. Some of these circumstances are contact with human corpses or graves seminal flux vaginal flux menstruation and contact with people who have become impure from any of these.8485 In Rabbinic Judaism Kohanim members of the hereditary caste that served as priests in the time of the Temple are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies.86 Family purity Main article: Niddah An important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating women. These laws are also known as niddah literally "separation" or family purity. Vital aspects of halakha for traditionally observant Jews they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal denominations.87 Especially in Orthodox Judaism the Biblical laws are augmented by Rabbinical injunctions. For example the Torah mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from sexual intercourse for seven days. A woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped.84 The Rabbis conflated ordinary niddah with this extended menstrual period known in the Torah as zavah and mandated that a woman may not have sexual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her menstrual flow until seven days after it ends. In addition Rabbinical law forbids the husband from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period. Afterwards purification can occur in a ritual bath called a mikveh.87 Traditional Ethiopian Jews keep menstruating women in separate huts and similar to Karaite practice do not allow menstruating women into their temples because of a temple's special sanctity. Emigration to Israel and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to Ethiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices.8889 Life-cycle events Life-cycle events or rites of passage occur throughout a Jew's life that serve to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him/her to the entire community. Brit milah - Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony. A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls named zeved habat or brit bat enjoys limited popularity. Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah - This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations. In the Reform movement both girls and boys have their bat/bar mitzvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults male only in the Orthodox tradition lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a "portion" of the Torah. Marriage - Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event. A wedding takes place under a chupah or wedding canopy which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony the groom breaks a glass with his foot symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple and the scattering of the Jewish people. Death and Mourning - Judaism has a multi-staged mourning practice. The first stage is called the shiva (literally "seven" observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family the second is the shloshim (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents there is a third stage avelut yud bet chodesh which is observed for eleven months. Community leadership Classical priesthood The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties they are still honored in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty. Kohen (priest) - patrilineal descendant of Aaron brother of Moses. In the Temple the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah performs the Priestly Blessing as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born. Levi (Levite) - Patrilineal descendant of Levi the son of Jacob. In the Temple in Jerusalem the levites sang Psalms performed construction maintenance janitorial and guard duties assisted the priests and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah. Prayer leaders From the time of the Mishnah and Talmud to the present Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activitiesreading the Torah and haftarah (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings) the prayer for mourners the blessings for bridegroom and bride the complete grace after mealsrequire a minyan the presence of ten Jews. The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are: Rabbi of a congregation - Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e. from a respected Orthodox rabbi or if the congregation is Conservative or Reform from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatz or baal kriyah (see below). Hassidic Rebbe - rabbi who is the head of a Hasidic dynasty. Hazzan (note: the "h" denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative) (cantor) - a trained vocalist who acts as shatz. Chosen for a good voice knowledge of traditional tunes understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan. Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles which are sometimes but not always filled by a rabbi and/or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis: Shaliach tzibur or Shatz (leaderliterally "agent" or "representative"of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatz recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion; it is with this act that the shatz's prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatz. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations only men can be prayer leaders but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function. The Baal kriyah or baal koreh (master of the reading) reads the weekly Torah portion. The requirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those for the shatz. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each. Many congregations especially larger ones also rely on a: Gabbai (sexton) - Calls people up to the Torah appoints the shatz for each prayer session if there is no standard shatz and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied. The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the Enlightenment large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as shatz and baal kriyah and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations. However in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still. Specialized religious roles Dayan (judge) - An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a beth din (rabbinical court). In Israel religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community. Mohel (circumciser) - An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified mohel and performs the brit milah (circumcision). Shochet (ritual slaughterer) - In order for meat to be kosher it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another shochet. Sofer (scribe) - Torah scrolls tefillin (phylacteries) mezuzot (scrolls put on doorposts) and gittin (bills of divorce) must be written by a sofer who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts. Rosh yeshiva - A Torah scholar who runs a yeshiva. Mashgiach of a yeshiva - Depending on which yeshiva might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on mussar (Jewish ethics). Mashgiach - Supervises manufacturers of kosher food importers caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi if not a rabbi himself. History Main article: Jewish history Origins Main article: Origins of Judaism Further information: Ancient Semitic religion Scenes from the Book of Esther decorate the Dura-Europos synagogue dating from 244 CE At its core the Tanakh is an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. As a reward for his act of faith in one God he was promised that Isaac his second son would inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan). Later Jacob and his children were enslaved in Egypt and God commanded Moses to lead the Exodus from Egypt. At Mount Sinai they received the Torah - the five books of Moses. These books together with Nevi'im and Ketuvim are known as Torah Shebikhtav as opposed to the Oral Torah which refers to the Mishna and the Talmud. Eventually God led them to the land of Israel where the tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. As time went on the spiritual level of the nation declined to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle. The people of Israel then told Samuel the prophet that they needed to be governed by a permanent king and Samuel appointed Saul to be their King. When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by Samuel God told Samuel to appoint David in his stead. The Western Wall in Jerusalem is a remnant of the wall encircling the Second Temple. The Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism. Once King David was established he told the prophet Nathan that he would like to build a permanent temple and as a reward for his actions God promised David that he would allow his son Solomon to build the first permanent temple and the throne would never depart from his children. Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law which are called the Oral Torah or oral law were originally an unwritten tradition based upon what God told Moses on Mount Sinai. However as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten these oral laws were recorded by Rabbi Judah haNasi (Judah the Prince) in the Mishnah redacted circa 200 CE. The Talmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and the Gemara rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship Palestine and Babylonia. Correspondingly two bodies of analysis developed and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud. It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Israel. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled from discussions in the houses of study by the scholars Ravina I Ravina II and Rav Ashi by 500 CE although it continued to be edited later. Some critical scholars oppose the view that the sacred texts including the Hebrew Bible were divinely inspired. Many of these scholars accept the general principles of the documentary hypothesis and suggest that the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts.909192 Many suggest that during the First Temple period the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god but that their god was superior to other gods.9394 Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile perhaps in reaction to Zoroastrian dualism.95 In this view it was only by the Hellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god and that the notion of a clearly bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed.96 John Day argues that the origins of biblical Yahweh El Asherah and Ba'al may be rooted in earlier Canaanite religion which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like the Greek Pantheon.97 Antiquity Main articles: Ancient Israel and Judah Babylonian captivity Hellenistic Judaism Hasmonean Kingdom Iudaea Province and Bar Kokhba revolt The United Monarchy was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon with its capital in Jerusalem. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Sargon II in the late 8th century BCE with many people from the capital Samaria being taken captive to Media and the Khabur River valley. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE destroying the First Temple that was at the center of ancient Jewish worship. The Judean elite were exiled to Babylonia and this is regarded as the first Jewish Diaspora. Later many of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylonia by the Persians seventy years later a period known as the Babylonian Captivity. A new Second Temple was constructed and old religious practices were resumed. During the early years of the Second Temple the highest religious authority was a council known as the Great Assembly led by Ezra of the Book of Ezra. Among other accomplishments of the Great Assembly the last books of the Bible were written at this time and the canon sealed. Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE and became a notable religio licita throughout the Roman Empire until its decline in the 3rd century parallel to the rise of Gnosticism and Early Christianity. After a Jewish revolt against Roman rule in 66 CE the Romans all but destroyed Jerusalem. Following a second revolt Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem and most Jewish worship was forbidden by Rome. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple prayer took the place of sacrifice and worship was rebuilt around rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities (see Jewish diaspora). Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700) Around the 1st century CE there were several small Jewish sects: the Pharisees Sadducees Zealots Essenes and Christians. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE these sects vanished. Christianity survived but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the Pharisees survived but in the form of Rabbinic Judaism (today known simply as "Judaism"). The Sadducees rejected the divine inspiration of the Prophets and the Writings relying only on the Torah as divinely inspired. Consequently a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism) were also dismissed by the Sadducees. (The Samaritans practiced a similar religion which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.) Like the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the Mishnah (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds) relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the Isunians the Yudganites the Malikites and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own which differed from the rabbinic traditions and eventually formed the Karaite sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews but that the other faith is erroneous. Over a long time Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas amongst others the Ashkenazi Jews (of central and Eastern Europe) the Sephardi Jews (of Spain Portugal and North Africa) the Beta Israel of Ethiopia and the Yemenite Jews from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers traditions and accepted canons; however these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism rather than based on any doctrinal dispute. Persecutions Main articles: Persecution of Jews Antisemitism and History of antisemitism Antisemitism arose during the Middle Ages in the form of persecutions pogroms forced conversion expulsions social restrictions and ghettoization. This was different in quality to any repressions of Jews in ancient times. Ancient repression was politically motivated and Jews were treated no differently than any other ethnic group would have been. With the rise of the Churches attacks on Jews became motivated instead by theological considerations specifically deriving from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.98 Hasidism Main article: Hasidic Judaism Hasidic Judaism was founded by Yisroel ben Eliezer (17001760) also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov (or Besht). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic" and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. His disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new but a refreshment of original Judaism. Or as some have put it: "they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost".99 Nevertheless early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as Misnagdim (lit. "opponents"). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the overwhelming exuberance of Hasidic worship its untraditional ascriptions of infallibility and alleged miracle-working to their leaders and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Since then differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism. The Enlightenment and New Religious Movements Main articles: Haskalah and Jewish religious movements In the late 18th century CE Europe was swept by a group of intellectual social and political movements known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement Haskalah or the "Jewish Enlightenment" began especially in Central Europe and Western Europe in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe Jewish law and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend. In Central Europe followed by Great Britain and The United States Reform Judaism and Liberal Judaism developed relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews) emulating Protestant decorum in prayer and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of Jewish law. Meanwhile in the United States wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that Jewish law should not be entirely abandoned to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries. Spectrum of observance Judaism has spread to all corners of the world. Seen here is a synagogue in downtown Mumbai. Countries such as the United States Israel Canada United Kingdom Argentina and South Africa contain large Jewish populations. Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the National Jewish Population Survey in the United States' Jewish communitythe world's second largest4.3 million Jews out of 5.1 million had some sort of connection to the religion. Of that population of connected Jews 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance but only 48% belonged to a synagogue and fewer than 16% attend regularly.100 Birth rates for American Jews have dropped from 2.0 to 1.7.101 (Replacement rate is 2.1.) Intermarriage rates range from 40-50% in the US and only about a third of children of intermarried couples are raised as Jews. Due to intermarriage and low birth rates the Jewish population in the US shrank from 5.5 million in 1990 to 5.1 million in 2001. This is indicative of the general population trends among the Jewish community in the Diaspora but a focus on total population obscures growth trends in some denominations and communities such as Haredi Judaism. The Baal teshuva movement is a movement of Jews who have "returned" to religion or become more observant. Judaism and other religions Christianity and Judaism Main article: Christianity and Judaism See also: Judeo-Christian Christianity and antisemitism Judaism's view of Jesus Cultural and historical background of Jesus and Christian-Jewish reconciliation This section requires expansion. Historians and theologians regularly review the changing relationship between some Christian groups and the Jewish people; the article on Christian-Jewish reconciliation studies one recent issue. Islam and Judaism Main article: Islam and Judaism See also: History of the Jews under Muslim rule and Islam and antisemitism The relationship between Islam and Judaism is special and close. Both religions claim to arise from the patriarch Abraham and are therefore considered Abrahamic religions. As fellow monotheists Muslims view Jews as "people of the book" a term that Jews have subsequently adopted as a way of describing their own connection to the Torah and other holy texts.102 In turn many Jews maintain that Muslims adhere to the Seven Laws of Noah. Thus Judaism views Muslims as righteous people of God.103 Jews have interacted with Muslims since the 7th century when Islam originated and spread in the Arabian peninsula and many aspects of Islam's core values structure jurisprudence and practice are based on Judaism.104105 Muslim culture and philosophy have heavily influenced practitioners of Judaism in the Islamic world.106 In premodern Muslim countries Jews rarely faced martyrdom exile or forcible conversion and were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.107 Indeed the years 712 to 1066 CE under the Ummayad and the Abbasid rulers have been called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries including Jews were known as dhimmis. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal affairs but subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims.108 For example they had to pay the jizya a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males108 and were also forbidden from bearing arms or testifying in court cases involving Muslims.109 Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For example dhimmis in some countries were required to wear distinctive clothing a practice not found in the Qur'an or hadiths but invented in early medieval Baghdad and inconsistently enforced.110 Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecutionfor example many were killed exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century in Persia and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus.111 At times Jews were also restricted in their choice of residencein Morocco Jews were confined to walled quarters (mellahs) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.112 In the late 20th century Jews were expelled from nearly all the Arab countries. Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today antisemitic themes have become commonplace in the propaganda of Arab Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.113 Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism There are some organizations that combine elements of Judaism with those of other religions. The most well-known of these is the Messianic Judaism which arose in the 1960s.114115116117 It a blends evangelical Christian theology with elements of Jewish terminology and ritual.117118119120121 The movement states that Jesus is part of the Trinity122123 and salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one's savior.124 Some members of the movement are ethnically Jewish and some of them argue that Messianic Judaism is a sect of Judaism.125 Jewish organizations and religious movements reject this stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect.126 The most controversial of these groups is the American Jews for Jesus which actively proselytizes ethnic Jews through numerous missionary campaigns in major American cities. Other examples of syncretism include Judeo-Paganists a loosely organized set of Jews who incorporate pagan or Wiccan beliefs with some Jewish religious practices like Messianic Judaism; Jewish Buddhists another loosely organized group that incorporates elements of Asian spirituality in their faith; and some Renewal Jews who borrow freely and openly from Buddhism Sufism Native American religion and other faiths. The Kabbalah Centre which employs teachers from multiple religions is a New Age movement that claims to popularize the kabbalah the Jewish esoteric tradition. See also Judaism portal Book: Abrahamic religions Book: Judaism Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Main article: Outline of Judaism Anti-Judaism Frankism Jewish views of religious pluralism Judaism by country List of converts to Judaism Sabbateanism Secular Jewish culture United States military chaplain symbols References Jacobs Louis (2007). "Judaism". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 511. ISBN 9780-02-865928-2. "Judaism the religion philosophy and way of life of the Jews.".  "What is the oral Torah". Torah.org. http://www.torah.org/learning/basics/primer/torah/oraltorah.html. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Karaite Jewish University". Kjuonline.com. http://www.kjuonline.com/ToOurFellowJews.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Society for Humanistic Judaism". Shj.org. http://www.shj.org/. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Religion & Ethics - Judaism". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  JudaismPDF (52.1 KB) "The 3 Monotheistic Religions - Essays - Noel12". Oppapers.com. 2008-05-26. http://www.oppapers.com/essays/3-Monotheistic-Religions/151138. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Settings of silver: an introduction to Judaism p. 59 by Stephen M. Wylen Paulist Press 2000 1 Heribert Busse (1998). Islam Judaism and Christianity: Theological and Historical Affiliations. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 63112. ISBN 9781558761445.  Irving M. Zeitlin (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. pp. 9293. ISBN 9780745639994.  Jewish Contributions to Civilization: An Estimate (book) See for example Deborah Dash Moore American Jewish Identity Politics University of Michigan Press 2008 p. 303; Ewa Morawska Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America 1890-1940 Princeton University Press 1999. p. 217; Peter Y. Medding Values interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world Volume 11 of Studies in contemporary Jewry Oxford University Press 1995 p. 64; Ezra Mendelsohn People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge Volume 15 of Studies in contemporary Jewry Oxford University Press 1999 p. 55; Louis Sandy Maisel Ira N. Forman Donald Altschiller Charles Walker Bassett Jews in American politics: essays Rowman & Littlefield 2004 p. 158; Seymour Martin Lipset American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword W. W. Norton & Company 1997 p. 169. World Jewish Population 2010. Sergio Della Pergola Hebrew University of Jerusalem "Jewish Denominations". ReligionFacts. http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/denominations.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Reform Judaism". ReligionFacts. http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/denominations/reform.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "What is Reform Judaism". Reformjudaism.org. http://reformjudaism.org/whatisrj.shtml. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Encyclopdia Britannica. "Britannica Online Encyclopedia: Bet Din". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63134/bet-din. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  a b "Judaism 101: Rabbis Priests and Other Religious Functionaries". Jewfaq.org. http://www.jewfaq.org/rabbi.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Nahum Sarna 1969 Understanding Genesis. New York: Schocken Jacob Neusner ''Defining Judaism'' in Jacob Neusner and Alan Avery-Peck "The Blackwell companion to Judaism" (Blackwell 2003) p.3. Books.google.com.au. 2003-02-23. ISBN 9781577180593. http://books.google.com/idasYoIwz9z2UC&pgPA230&lpgPA230&dqThe+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism++By+Jacob+Neusner+Alan+Avery-Peck#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Gen.  17:3-8 Genesis 17: 3-8: Abram fell facedown and God said to him "As for me this is my covenant with you: You will be the father of many nations. No longer will you be called Abram ; your name will be Abraham for I have made you a father of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you and kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole land of Canaan where you are now an alien I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God;" Gen.  22:17-18 Genesis 22: 17-18: I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies and through your offspring all nations on earth will be blessed because you have obeyed me." Exodus 20:3 "You shall have no other gods before me; Deut.  6:5 Deuteronomy 6:5 "Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength." Lev.  19:18 Leviticus 19:18: "'Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord" Kadushin Max 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. 194 Kadushin Max 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. 203 The Books of Melachim (Kings) and Book of Yeshaiahu (Isaiah) in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Biblical accounts of Israelite kings and segments of ancient Israel's population worshiping other gods. For example: King Solomon's "wives turned away his heart after other gods...and he did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD and went not fully after the LORD" (elaborated in 1 Melachim 11:4-10); King Ahab "went and served Baal and worshiped him...And Ahab made the Asherah a pagan place of worship; and Ahab did yet more to provoke the LORD the God of Israel than all the kings of Israel that were before him" (1 Melachim 16:31-33); the prophet Isaiah condemns the people who "prepare a table for the idol Fortune and that offer mingled wine in full measure unto the idol Destiny" (Yeshaiahu 65:11-12). Translation: JPS (Jewish Publication Society) edition of the Tanakh from 1917 available at Mechon Mamre. The Jewish roots of Christological monotheism: papers from the St. Andrews conference on the historical origins of the worship of Jesus. Books.google.com. 1999. ISBN 9789004113619. http://books.google.com/id9ST5wISvTaQC&printsecfrontcover&dqJewish+monotheism#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Steinberg Milton 1947 Basic Judaism New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 36 "Judaism 101: Movements of Judaism". Jewfaq.org. http://www.jewfaq.org/movement.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Rabbi S. of Montpelier Yad Rama Y. Alfacher Rosh Amanah. "Maimonides 13 Foundations of Judaism". Mesora. http://www.mesora.org/13principles.html. "However if he rejects one of these fundamentals he leaves the nation and is a denier of the fundamentals and is called a heretic a denier etc."  Rabbi Mordechai Blumenfeld. "Maimonides 13 Principles of Faith". Aish HaTorah. http://www.aish.com/sp/ph/48923722.html. "According to the Rambam their acceptance defines the minimum requirement necessary for one to relate to the Almighty and His Torah as a member of the People of Israel"  a b c Daniel Septimus. "The Thirteen Principles of Faith". MyJewishLearning.com. http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Theology/ThinkersandThought/DoctrineandDogma/TheMiddleAges/PrinciplesofFaith.shtml.  Ronald L. Eisenberg (2004). The JPS guide to Jewish traditions. Jewish Publication Society. p. 509. ISBN 0827607601. http://books.google.com/idqGHi9K154C&pgRA13-PA509&lpgRA13-PA509&dqMaimonides'+thirteen+principles+of+faith. "The concept of "dogma" is ... not a basic idea in Judaism."  Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought Menachem Kellner. "The Thirteen Principles of the Jewish Faith". Hebrew4Christians. http://www.hebrew4christians.net/Scripture/Shloshah-AsarIkkarim/shloshah-asarikkarim.html. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "What Do Jews Believe". Mechon Mamre. http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/beliefs.htm. "The closest that anyone has ever come to creating a widely accepted list of Jewish beliefs is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith."  The JPS guide to Jewish traditions page 510 "The one that eventually secured almost universal acceptance was the Thirteen Principles of faith" "Judaism 101: What Do Jews Believe". Jewfaq.org. http://www.jewfaq.org/beliefs.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Description of Judaism Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance". Religioustolerance.org. http://www.religioustolerance.org/juddesc.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Judaism 101: The Patriarchs and the Origins of Judaism". Jewfaq.org. http://www.jewfaq.org/origins.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Rietti Rabbi Jonathan. "How Do You Know the Exodus Really Happened". Archived from the original on 2004-09-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20040918062910/http://jewishinspiration.com/tape.phptapeid41.  The word "emunah" has been translated incorrectly by the King James Bible as merely "belief" or "faith" when in actuality it means conviction which is a much more emphatic knowledge of God based on experience. "Jewish Sacred Texts". ReligionFacts. http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/texts.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  M. San 10:1. Translation available here 2. "Judaism 101: A Glossary of Basic Jewish Terms and Concepts". Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations in America. April 12 2006. http://www.ou.org/about/judaism/tanakh.htm.  The Prayer book: Weekday Sabbath and Festival translated and arranged by Ben Zion Bokser. New York: Hebrew Publishing Company. 9-10 Kadushin Max 1972 The Rabbinic Mind New York: Bloch Publishing. 213 Neusner Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son Oregon xvii-xxii Stern David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry Vol. 15 No. 1 (Autumn 1988) p. 151. Neusner Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son Oregon xvii-vix; Steinsaltz Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New York: Basic Books. 3-9; Strack Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95; Stern David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry Vol. 15 No. 1 (Autumn 1988) pp. 132-161 Stern David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry Vol. 15 No. 1 (Autumn 1988) p. 147. Cohen Abner 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Strack Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 Cohen Abner 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Steinsaltz Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New Yorki: Basic Books. 222; Strack Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 Strack Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 Jerusalem: 1974 pp. 38-39 Chief Rabbi Sir Jonathan Sacks 2006 The Koren Sacks Siddur: Hebrew/English Prayer Book: The Authorized Daily Prayer Book of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth London: Harper Collins Publishers pp. 54-55 Nosson Scherman 2003 The Complete Artscroll Siddur Third Edition Brooklyn N.Y.: Mesorah Publications pp. 49-53 Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi Nissen Mangel 2003 Siddur Tehillat Hashem Kehot Publication Society. 24-25 "Methods and Categories: Judaism and Gospel". Bibleinterp.com. 2007-11-06. http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/mason3.shtml. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  AskOxford: Judaismdead link Oscar Sakrsaune "In the Shadow of the Temple: Jewish Influences on Early Christianity"InterVarsity Press 2002) PP.39FF. Books.google.com.au. 2002. ISBN 9780830826704. http://books.google.com/id2q6qTb-A7GwC&pgRA1-PA39&lpgRA1-PA39&dqGreek+origins+of+Iudaismos#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  The Oxford English Dictionary. Boyarin Daniel (October 14 1994). "Introduction". A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley California: University of California Press. pp. 1338. ISBN Special:BookSources/0-520-08592-2 LCCN 93-362690-520-08592-2 LCCN 93-36269. http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/viewdocIdft7w10086w&chunk.idintroduction&toc.depth1&toc.idintroduction&branducpress. Retrieved 2006-06-15. "Paul was motivated by a Hellenistic desire for the One which among other things produced an ideal of a universal human essence beyond difference and hierarchy. This universal humanity however was predicated (and still is) on the dualism of the flesh and the spirit such that while the body is particular marked through practice as Jew or Greek and through anatomy as male or female the spirit is universal. Paul did not however reject the bodyas did for instance the gnosticsbut rather promoted a system whereby the body had its place albeit subordinated to the spirit. Paul's anthropological dualism was matched by a hermeneutical dualism as well. Just as the human being is divided into a fleshy and a spiritual component so also is language itself. It is composed of outer material signs and inner spiritual significations. When this is applied to the religious system that Paul inherited the physical fleshy signs of the Torah of historical Judaism are re-interpreted as symbols of that which Paul takes to be universal requirements and possibilities for humanity."  Boyarin Daniel (1994). "Answering the Mail". A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08592-2. http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/viewdocIdft7w10086w&chunk.idch10&toc.depth1&toc.idch10&branducpress. "Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity because it is not national not genealogical not religious but all of these in dialectical tension with one another."  Weiner Rebecca (2007). "Who is a Jew". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/whojew1.html. Retrieved 2007-10-06.  "''Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice''". Faqs.org. 2010-06-29. http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/10-Reform/section-15.html. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Heschel Susannah (1998) Abraham Geiger and the Jewish Jesus. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 157. ISBN 0-226-32959-3 "Law of Return 5710-1950". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2007. http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/19501959/Law%20of%20Return%205710-1950. Retrieved 2007-10-22.  Robert Gordis. "Torah MiSinai:Conservative Views". A Modern Approach to a Living Halachah. Masorti World. Archived from the original on 2007-07-13. http://web.archive.org/web/20070713183805/http://masortiworld.org/faq/theology-+beliefs/torah-misinai.html. "The Torah is an emanation of God... This conception does not mean for us that the process of revalation consisted of dictation by God."  "Conservative Judaism". Jewlicious. http://www.jewlicious.com/2005/06/conservative-judaism/. "We therefore understand this term as a metaphor to mean that the Torah is divine and that it reflects Gods will."  "Tefillin" "The Book of Jewish Knowledge" Nathan Ausubel Crown Publishers NY 1964 p.458) "Shabbat". Judaism 101. April 12 2006. http://www.jewfaq.org/shabbat.htm.  a b c d e f g "Judaism 101: Kashrut". Jewfaq.org. http://www.jewfaq.org/kashrut.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Chaya Shuchat. "The Kosher Pig". http://www.meaningfullife.com/torah/parsha/vayikra/shemini/TheKosherPig.php. "It is also the most quintessentially treif of animals with its name being nearly synonymous with non-kosher ... Although far from alone in the litany of non-kosher animals the pig seems to stand in a class of its own."  "Tamar Levy St. Louis MO Block Yeshiva High School Grade 9". OUkosher.org. http://www.oukosher.org/index.php/common/article/9660/. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Shulchan Aruch Yoreh De'ah (87:3) Elliot Dorff "On the Use of All Wines"PDF (2.19 MB) YD 123:1.1985 pp. 1115. "Kashrut Facts". Religionfacts.com. http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/practices/kosher.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Judaism 101: Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws". Jewfaq.org. http://www.jewfaq.org/kashrut.htm#Blood. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 11 Rice Yisrael (2007-06-10). "Judaism and the Art of Eating". Chabad. http://www.chabad.org/library/articlecdo/aid/89567/jewish/Judaism-and-the-Art-of-Eating.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Jewish life in WWII England: "there was a...special dispensation...that allowed Jews serving in the armed services to eat "non-kosher" when no Jewish food was available; that deviation from halacha was allowed 'in order to save a human life including your own.'" Y. Lichtenshtein M.A.. "Weekly Pamphlet #805". Bar-Ilan University Faculty of Jewish Studies Rabbinical office. http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/shmini/lict.html. "...certain prohibitions become allowed without a doubt because of lifethreatening circumstances like for example eating non-kosher food"  a b Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 15. Bamidbar (Numbers) 19. Avi Kehat. "Torah tidbits". Ou.org. http://www.ou.org/torah/tt/5767/shemot67/mikdash.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  a b "Judaism 101: Kosher Sex". Jewfaq.org. http://www.jewfaq.org/sex.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  "Karaites". Encyclopedia.com. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3458001508.html. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Wasserfall Rahel (1999). Women and water: menstruation in Jewish life and law. Brandeis University Press. ISBN 0874519608.  Yehezkal Kauffman The Religion of Israel Robert Alter The Art of Biblical Poetry E. A. Speiser Genesis (The Anchor Bible) John Bright A History of Israel Martin Noth The History of Israel Ephraim Urbach The Sages Shaye Cohen The beginnings of Jewishness John Day Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan page 68. Langmuir Gavin (1993). History religion and antisemitism. University of California Press. ISBN 0520077288.  ""The Maggid of Mezritch" Chapter 7 - Opposition Intensifies". Nishmas.org. http://www.nishmas.org/maggid/chapt7.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  http://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris-Interactive-Poll-Research-While-Most-Americans-Believe-in-God-Only-36-pct-A-2003-10.pdf Religious service attendance at least once a month This is My Beloved This is My Friend: A Rabbinic Letter on Intimate relations p. 27 Elliot N. Dorff Hence for example such books as People of the Book: Thirty Scholars Reflect on Their Jewish Identity (Johns Hopkins University Press 1997) and People of the Book: Canon Meaning and Authority (Harvard University Press 1997). "Jewish Rabbi admits Islam is the oldest religion". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watchvPA2N2Iz5ExM. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Prager D; Telushkin J. Why the Jews: The Reason for Antisemitism. New York: Simon & Schuster 1983. page 110-126. Jewish-Muslim Relations Past & Present Rabbi David Rosen "The Golden Age of Arab-Jewish Coexistence The Golden Era". The Peace FAQ. 1998-09-01. http://www.peacefaq.com/golden.html#whatis. Retrieved 2010-08-22.  Lewis (1999) p.131; (1984) pp.862 a b Lewis (1984) pp.1020 Lewis (1987) p. 9 27 Lewis (1999) p.131 Lewis (1984) pp. 17 18 52 94 95; Stillman (1979) pp. 27 77 Lewis (1984) p. 28 Muslim Anti-Semitism by Bernard Lewis (Middle East Quarterly) June 1998 Feher Shoshanah. Passing over Easter: Constructing the Boundaries of Messianic Judaism Rowman Altamira 1998 ISBN 9780761989530 p. 140. "This interest in developing a Jewish ethnic identity may not be surprising when we consider the 1960s when Messianic Judaism arose." Ariel Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher Eugene V.; Ashcraft W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 191. ISBN 978-0275987145. OCLC 315689134. LCCN 2006-022954. http://books.google.com/booksidClaySHbUEogC&pgRA1-PA191. "In the late 1960s and 1970s both Jews and Christians in the United States were surprised to see the rise of a vigorous movement of Jewish Christians or Christian Jews."  Ariel Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher Eugene V.; Ashcraft W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 194. ISBN 978-0275987145. OCLC 315689134. LCCN 2006-022954. http://books.google.com/booksidoZiScvbS6-cC&pgRA1-PA194&dqWhen+the+term+resurfaced+in+Israel&hlen&eiee9aTLToE8L-8AbUzWyAg&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum2&ved0CDMQ6AEwAQ#vonepage&qWhen%20the%20term%20resurfaced%20in%20Israel&ffalse. "The Rise of Messianic Judaism. In the first phase of the movement during the early and mid-1970s Jewish converts to Christianity established several congregations at their own initiative. Unlike the previous communities of Jewish Christians Messianic Jewish congregations were largely independent of control from missionary societies or Christian denominations even though they still wanted the acceptance of the larger evangelical community."  a b Melton J. Gordon. Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Infobase Publishing 2005 ISBN 9780816054565 p. 373. "Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the 20th century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith... By the 1960s a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves Messianic Jews." Ariel Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher Eugene V.; Ashcraft W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 191. ISBN 978-0275987145. OCLC 315689134. LCCN 2006-022954. http://books.google.com/booksidClaySHbUEogC&pgRA1-PA191&dqWhile+Christianity+started+in+the+first+century+of+the+Common+Era&hlen&eio-9aTNSsKoL58AbC1tWMAw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CCcQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qWhile%20Christianity%20started%20in%20the%20first%20century%20of%20the%20Common%20Era&ffalse. "While Christianity started in the first century of the Common Era as a Jewish group it quickly separated from Judaism and claimed to replace it; ever since the relationship between the two traditions has often been strained. But in the twentieth century groups of young Jews claimed that they had overcome the historical differences between the two religions and amalgamated Jewish identity and customs with the Christian faith."  Ariel Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher Eugene V.; Ashcraft W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194195. ISBN 978-0275987145. OCLC 315689134. LCCN 2006-022954. http://books.google.com/booksidoZiScvbS6-cC&pgRA1-PA194&dqWhen+the+term+resurfaced+in+Israel&hlen&eiee9aTLToE8L-8AbUzWyAg&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum2&ved0CDMQ6AEwAQ#vonepage&qWhen%20the%20term%20resurfaced%20in%20Israel&ffalse. "When the term resurfaced in Israel in the 1940s and 1950s it designated all Jews who accepted Christianity in its Protestant evangelical form. Missionaries such as the Southern Baptist Robert Lindsey noted that for Israeli Jews the term nozrim "Christians" in Hebrew meant almost automatically an alien hostile religion. Because such a term made it nearly impossible to convince Jews that Christianity was their religion missionaries sought a more neutral term one that did not arouse negative feelings. They chose Meshichyim Messianic to overcome the suspicion and antagonism of the term nozrim. Meshichyim as a term also had the advantage of emphasizing messianism as a major component of the Christian evangelical belief that the missions and communities of Jewish converts to Christianity propagated. It conveyed the sense of a new innovative religion rather thatsic an old unfavorable one. The term was used in reference to those Jews who accepted Jesus as their personal savior and did not apply to Jews accepting Roman Catholicism who in Israel have called themselves Hebrew Christians. The term Messianic Judaism was adopted in the United States in the early 1970s by those converts to evangelical Christianity who advocated a more assertive attitude on the part of converts towards their Jewish roots and heritage."  Cohn-Sherbok Dan (2000). "Messianic Jewish mission". Messianic Judaism. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 9780826454584. OCLC 42719687. http://books.google.com/booksid5aOOlWdLpNwC&pgPA169&dq%22Messianic+Judaism%22+Christian+Jewish&hlen&eiIkthTJaKMMT48AaxdDaCQ&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CDgQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qEvangelism%20Jewish%20people%20heart%20movement&ffalse. Retrieved August 10 2010. "Evangelism of the Jewish people is thus at the heart of the Messianic movement."  Ariel Yaakov S. (2000). "Chapter 20: The Rise of Messianic Judaism" (Google Books). Evangelizing the chosen people: missions to the Jews in America 18802000. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 223. ISBN 9780807848807. OCLC 43708450. http://books.google.com/booksidr3hCgIZB790C&printsecfrontcover&vqadvocated+offspring+rhetoric+Shalom#vonepage&qadvocated%20offspring%20rhetoric%20Shalom&ffalse. Retrieved August 10 2010. "Messianic Judaism although it advocated the idea of an independent movement of Jewish converts remained the offspring of the missionary movement and the ties would never be broken. The rise of Messianic Judaism was in many ways a logical outcome of the ideology and rhetoric of the movement to evangelize the Jews as well as its early sponsorship of various forms of Hebrew Christian expressions. The missions have promoted the message that Jews who had embraced Christianity were not betraying their heritage or even their faith but were actually fulfilling their true Jewish selves by becoming Christians. The missions also promoted the dispensationalist idea that the Church equals the body of the true Christian believers and that Christians were defined by their acceptance of Jesus as their personal Savior and not by their affiliations with specific denominations and particular liturgies or modes of prayer. Missions had been using Jewish symbols in their buildings and literature and called their centers by Hebrew names such as Emanuel or Beth Sar Shalom. Similarly the missions' publications featured Jewish religious symbols and practices such as the lighting of a menorah. Although missionaries to the Jews were alarmed when they first confronted the more assertive and independent movement of Messianic Judaism it was they who were responsible for its conception and indirectly for its birth. The ideology rhetoric and symbols they had promoted for generations provided the background for the rise of a new movement that missionaries at first rejected as going too far but later accepted and even embraced."  "What are the Standards of the UMJC". FAQ. Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations. June 2004. http://www.umjc.net/home-mainmenu-1/faqs-mainmenu-58/14-umjc-faq/19-what-are-the-standards-of-the-umjc. Retrieved 2000-07-03. "1. We believe that there is one G-d eternally existent in three persons Father Son and Holy Spirit. 2. We believe in the deity of the L-RD Yeshua the Messiah in His virgin birth in His sinless life in His miracles in His vicarious and atoning death through His shed blood in His bodily resurrection in His ascension to the right hand of the Father and in His personal return in power and glory."  Israel b. Betzalel (2009). "Trinitarianism". JerusalemCouncil.org. http://jerusalemcouncil.org/articles/apologetics/trinitarianism/. Retrieved 2009-07-03. "This then is who Yeshua is: He is not just a man and as a man he is not from Adam but from God. He is the Word of HaShem the Memra the Davar the Righteous One he didnt become righteous he is righteous. He is called Gods Son he is the agent of HaShem called HaShem and he is HaShem who we interact with and not die."  "Do I need to be Circumcised". JerusalemCouncil.org. Feb 10 2009. http://jerusalemcouncil.org/articles/faqs/do-i-need-to-be-circumcised/. Retrieved August 18 2010. "To convert to the Jewish sect of HaDerech accepting Yeshua as your King is the first act after ones heart turns toward HaShem and His Torah as one can not obey a commandment of God if they first do not love God and we love God by following his Messiah. Without first accepting Yeshua as the King and thus obeying Him then getting circumcised for the purpose of Jewish conversion only gains you access to the Jewish community. It means nothing when it comes to inheriting a place in the World to Come.Getting circumcised apart from desiring to be obedient to HaShem and apart from accepting Yeshua as your King is nothing but a surgical procedure or worse could lead to you believe that Jewish identity grants you a portion in the World to Come at which point what good is Messiah Yeshua the Word of HaShem to you He would have died for nothing!As a convert from the nations part of your obligation in keeping the Covenant if you are a male is to get circumcised in fulfillment of the commandment regarding circumcision. Circumcision is not an absolute requirement of being a Covenant member (that is being made righteous before HaShem and thus obtaining eternal life) but it is a requirement of obedience to Gods commandments because circumcision is commanded for those who are of the seed of Abraham whether born into the family adopted or converted.If after reading all of this you understand what circumcision is and that is an act of obedience rather than an act of gaining favor before HaShem for the purpose of receiving eternal life then if you are male believer in Yeshua the Messiah for the redemption from death the consequence of your sin of rebellion against Him then pursue circumcision and thus conversion into Judaism as an act of obedience to the Messiah."  "Jewish Conversion - Giyur". JerusalemCouncil.org. JerusalemCouncil.org. 2009. http://jerusalemcouncil.org/halacha/giyur/jewish-conversion/. Retrieved 2009-02-05. "We recognize the desire of people from the nations to convert to Judaism through HaDerech (The Way)(Messianic Judaism) a sect of Judaism."  Orthodox Simmons Shraga. "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus". Aish HaTorah. http://www.aish.com/jw/s/48892792.html. Retrieved July 28 2010. "Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because: Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. Jesus did not embody the personal qualifications of the Messiah. Biblical verses "referring" to Jesus are mistranslations. Jewish belief is based on national revelation."  Conservative Waxman Jonathan (2006). "Messianic Jews Are Not Jews". United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on June 28 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060628033541/http://www.uscj.org/MessianicJewsNotJ5480.html. Retrieved 2007-02-14. "Hebrew Christian Jewish Christian Jew for Jesus Messianic Jew Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed over the course of time but all of the names reflect the same phenomenon: one who asserts that s/he is straddling the theological fence between Christianity and Judaism but in truth is firmly on the Christian side.we must affirm as did the Israeli Supreme Court in the well-known Brother Daniel case that to adopt Christianity is to have crossed the line out of the Jewish community."  Reform "Missionary Impossible". Hebrew Union College. August 9 1999. http://www.huc.edu/news/mi.html. Retrieved 2007-02-14. "Missionary Impossible an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers educators and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recognize and respond to "Jews-for-Jesus" "Messianic Jews" and other Christian proselytizers has been produced by six rabbinic students at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion's Cincinnati School. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of Christian missionaries."  Reconstructionist/Renewal "FAQ's About Jewish Renewal". Aleph.org. 2007. https://www.aleph.org/faq.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-20. "What is ALEPH's position on so called messianic Judaism ALEPH has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions but objects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Our position on so-called "Messianic Judaism" is that it is Christianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that."  Bibliography Marc Lee Raphael "Judaism in America" (Columbia University Press 2003) Avery-Peck Alan and Neusner Jacob (eds) "The Blackwell reader in Judaism" (Blackwell 2001) Cohn-Sherbok Dan "Judaism: history belief and practice" (Routledge 2003) Avery-Peck Alan and Neusner Jacob (eds) "The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Blackwell 2003) Boyarin Daniel 1994 A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity Berkeley: University of California Press Ancient Judaism Max Weber Free Press 1967 ISBN 0-02-934130-2 Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief Tradition and Practice Wayne Dosick. Conservative Judaism: The New Century Neil Gillman Behrman House. American Jewish Orthodoxy in Historical Perspective Jeffrey S. Gurock 1996 Ktav. Philosophies of Judaism Julius Guttmann trans. by David Silverman JPS. 1964 Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts Ed. Barry W. Holtz Summit Books A History of the Jews Paul Johnson HarperCollins 1988 A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America Jack Wertheimer. Brandeis Univ. Press 1997. Encyclopaedia Judaica Keter Publishing CD-ROM edition 1997 The American Jewish Identity Survey article by Egon Mayer Barry Kosmin and Ariela Keysar; a sub-set of The American Religious Identity Survey City University of New York Graduate Center. An article on this survey is printed in The New York Jewish Week November 2 2001. Lewis Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8 Lewis Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 Stillman Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 Day John. Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Chippenham: Sheffield Academic Press 2000. Dever William G. Did God Have a Wife. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2005. Walsh J.P.M. The Mighty From Their Thrones. Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers 1987. Finkelstein Israel (1996). Ethinicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Please Stand Up The Biblical Archaeologist 59(4). Jews in Islamic countries: A. Khanbaghi. The Fire the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris 2006). External links Find more about Judaism on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks General Judaism 101 an extensive FAQ written by a librarian. 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English Tanakh from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society version. The Judaica Press Complete Tanach with Rashi in English Torah.org. (also known as Project Genesis) Contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh along with Jewish ethics philosophy holidays and other classes. The complete formatted Talmud online. Audio files of lectures for each page from an Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French English Yiddish and Hebrew. Reload the page for an image of a page of the Talmud. See also Torah database for links to more judaism e-texts. Wikimedia Torah study projects Wikisource has original text related to this article: Pentateuch Text study projects at Wikisource. In many instances the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English. Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample). Cantillation at the "Vayavinu Bamikra" Project in Hebrew (lists nearly 200 recordings) and English. Mishnah in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample). 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