Lenape women in Oklahoma (1910) Map depicting Lenapehoking the historic homeland of the Lenape. In the north were the Munsee the center the Unami and in the south the Unalichtigo a subdivision of the Unami This article includes a list of references related reading or external links but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (May 2011)

The Lenape ( /lnpi/ or /lnpi/) are a group of several organized bands of Native American people with shared cultural and linguistic characteristics. Their name for themselves (autonym) sometimes spelled Lennape or Lenapi means "the people." They are also known as the Lenni Lenape (the "true people") or as the Delaware Indians. English settlers named the Delaware River after Lord De La Warr the governor of the colony at Jamestown Virginia. They used the exonym above for almost all the Lenape people living along this river and its tributaries.

At the time of European contact in the 16th and 17th centuries the Lenape lived in the area referred to as Lenapehoking roughly the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson Rivers. This encompassed what are now known as the U.S. state of New Jersey; eastern Pennsylvania around the Delaware and Lehigh valleys; the north shore of Delaware; and much of southeastern New York particularly the lower Hudson Valley Upper New York Bay Staten Island and western Long Island. They spoke two related languages in the Algonquian subfamily collectively known as the Delaware languages: Unami and Munsee.1

Lenape society was organized into clans determined by matrilineal descent. Territory was collective but divided by clan. At the time of European contact the Lenape practiced large-scale agriculture mostly companion planting their primary crops being varieties of the "Three Sisters." They also practiced hunting and the harvesting of seafood. They were primarily sedentary moving to different established campsites by season.

After the arrival of settlers and traders to the 17th-century colony of New Netherland the Lenape and other native peoples became extensively involved in the North American fur trade. Their trapping depleted the beaver population in the region proving disastrous for both the Lenape and the Dutch settlers. The Lenape were further weakened by newly introduced infectious diseases and by conflict with both Europeans and the traditional Lenape enemies the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock. Over the next centuries they were pushed out of their lands by Iroquoian enemies treaties and overcrowding by European settlers and moved west into the Ohio River valley. In the 1860s most Lenape remaining in the Eastern United States were sent to the Oklahoma Territory. In the 21st century most Lenape now reside in the U.S. state of Oklahoma with some communities living also in Kansas Wisconsin Ontario and in their traditional homelands. Contents 1 Society 2 History 2.1 European contact 2.2 European settlement 2.3 18th century 2.4 19th and 20th centuries 2.4.1 Ohio: 1750s to 1812 (American Revolution and War of 1812) 2.4.2 Notable Ohio Village Sites 2.4.3 Notable Ohio Lenape 2.4.4 Notable Ohio Events and Landmarks 2.4.5 Indiana to Missouri 2.4.6 Role in western history 2.4.7 Kansas reservation 2.4.8 White encroachment 2.4.9 Oklahoma 3 Lenape communities today 4 Notable Lenape 5 Literature 6 See also 7 Notes 7.1 References 8 External material 8.1 Bibliography 8.2 External links Society Lenape performing traditional dance dressed as the Mesingoholikan an incarnation of the spirit who negotiated between people and the spirits of animals they killed c. 1900.

Early Indian "tribes" are perhaps better understood as language groups rather than as "nations". At the time of first European contact a Lenape individual would likely have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and friends or village unit; then with surrounding and familiar village units; next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect; and ultimately while often fitfully with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages including the Mahican. Among other Algonquian peoples the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom all the other Algonquian peoples originated. Consequently in inter-tribal councils the Lenape were given respect as one would to elders.

Those of a different language stock such as the Iroquois (or in the Lenape language the Minqua) were regarded as foreigners. As in the case of the Iroquois the animosity of difference and competition spanned many generations and tribes became traditional enemies. Ethnicity seems to have mattered little to the Lenape and many other "tribes". Archaeological excavations have found Munsee-speaking Lenape burials that included identifiably ethnic Iroquois remains interred along with those of Lenape. The two groups were bitter enemies since before recorded history. Intermarriage clearly occurred. In addition both tribes practiced adopting captives from warfare into their tribes and assimilating them.

Overlaying these relationships was a phratry system a division into clans. Clan membership was matrilineal; children inherited membership in a clan from their mother. On reaching adulthood a Lenape traditionally married outside the clan a practice known by ethnographers as "exogamy". The practice effectively prevented inbreeding even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown.

Early Europeans who first wrote about Indians found matrilineal social organization to be unfamiliar and perplexing. Because of this Europeans often tried to interpret Lenape society through more familiar European arrangements. As a result the early records are full of clues about early Lenape society but were usually written by observers who did not fully understand what they were seeing. For example a man's maternal uncle (his mother's brother) and not his father was usually considered to be his closest male ancestor since his father belonged to a different clan. The maternal uncle played a more prominent role in the lives of his sister's children than did the father. Early European chroniclers did not understand this concept.

Land was assigned to a particular clan for hunting fishing and cultivation. Individual private ownership of land was unknown as the land belonged to the clan collectively while they inhabited it.2 Clans lived in fixed settlements using the surrounding areas for communal hunting and planting until the land was exhausted. In a common practice known as "agricultural shifting" the group then moved to found a new settlement within their territories. The Lenape practiced large-scale agriculture to augment a mobile hunter-gatherer society in the region around the Delaware River the lower Hudson River and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape were largely a sedentary people who occupied campsites seasonally which gave them relatively easy access to the small game that inhabited the region: fish birds shellfish and deer. They developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources. By the time of the arrival of Europeans the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique. This extended the productive life of planted fields.345678 They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area9 and in southern New Jersey harvested clams year-round.10 The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than nomadic hunter-gatherers could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement there may have been about 15000 Lenape total in approximately 80 settlement sites around much of the New York City area alone.11 In 1524 Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor. History European contact Benjamin West's painting (in 1771) of William Penn's 1682 treaty with the Lenape The first recorded contact with Europeans and people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524. The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was greeted by local Lenape who came by canoe after his ship entered what is now called Lower New York Bay. The Lenape occupied coastal areas throughout the mid-Atlantic and New York. The early interaction between the Lenape and Dutch traders in the 17th century was primarily through the fur trade specifically the Lenape trapped and traded beaver pelts for European-made goods. According to Dutch settler Isaac de Rasieres who observed the Lenape in 1628 the Lenape's primary crop was maize which they planted in March. They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task. In May the Lenape planted kidney beans near the maize plants; the latter served as props for the climbing bean vines. The summers were devoted to field work and the crops were harvested in August. Women cultivated varieties of maize and beans and did most of the field work processing and cooking of food. The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the soil. They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year. Dutch settler David de Vries who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644 described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the Achinigeu-hach (or "Ackingsah-sack" the Hackensack River) in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river where they could be killed easily. Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire. European settlement Dutch settlers founded a colony at present-day Lewes Delaware on June 3 1631 and named it Zwaanendael (Swan Valley).12 The colony had a short existence as in 1632 a local band of Lenape Indians killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding escalated over Lenape defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company.13 In 1634 the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at New Amsterdam. They defeated the Lenape and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become tributaries to the Susquehannock.14 After the warfare the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as "uncles." The Lenape were added to the Covenant Chain by the Iroquois in 1676 remaining tributary to the Five (later Six) Nations until 1753. The Lenape's quick adoption of trade goods and their need to trap furs to meet high European demand resulted in their disastrous over-harvesting of the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley. With the fur sources exhausted the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day upstate New York. The Lenape population fell due mostly to epidemics of infectious diseases carried by Europeans such as measles and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity. Differences in conceptions of property rights between the Europeans and the Lenape resulted in widespread confusion among the Lenape and the eventual loss of their lands. After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement until the 1660s to Pavonia in present-day Jersey City along the Hudson. The Dutch finally established a garrison at Bergen which allowed settlement west of the Hudson within the province of New Netherland. In the early 1680s William Penn and Quaker colonists created the English colony of Pennsylvania on the Delaware River. In the decades immediately following some 20000 new colonists arrived in the region putting pressure on Lenape settlements and hunting grounds. Although Penn endeavored to live peaceably with the Lenape and to create a colony that would do the same he also expected his authority and that of the colonial government to take precedence. His new colony effectively displaced the Lenape and forced others to adapt to new cultural demands. Penn gained a reputation for uncommon benevolence and tolerance but his efforts resulted in more effective colonization of the ancestral Lenape homeland than previous ones.15 18th century Lapowinsa Chief of the Lenape Lappawinsoe painted by Gustavus Hesselius in 1735. William Penn died in 1718. His heirs John Penn and Thomas Penn and their agents were running the colony and had abandoned many of the elder Penn's practices. In 1737 the colonial administrators claimed that they had a deed dating to the 1680s in which the Lenape-Delaware had promised to sell a portion of land beginning between the junction of the Delaware River and Lehigh River and extending "as far west as a man could walk in a day and a half."citation needed They contrived to have runners travel west and thus claim huge swaths of land in the eastern portion of the state. Although reluctant to agree to the dubious claim after years of fighting protest the Lenape acquiesced to the Walking Purchase.citation needed Beginning in the 18th century the Moravian Church established missions among the Lenape.16 The Moravians required the Christian converts to share their pacifism as well as to live in a structured and European-style mission village.17 Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British authorities who were seeking aid against the French and their Native American allies during the French and Indian War (Seven Years War). The Moravians' insistence on Christian Lenapes' abandoning traditional warfare practices also alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups. The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada continuing their missionary work. The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War were sometimes referred to as "Christian Munsee" as they mostly spoke the Munsee branch of the Delaware language. The Treaty of Easton signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo-American colonists required the Lenape to move westward out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania then Ohio and beyond. Sporadically they continued to raid European-American settlers from far outside the area. During the French and Indian War the Lenape initially sided with the French. But such leaders as Teedyuscung in the east and Tamaqua in the vicinity of modern Pittsburgh shifted to building alliances with the English. After the end of the war however Anglo-American settlers continued to kill Lenape often to such an extent that peoplewhowhen claimed the dead since the wars outnumbered those during the war.18 In 1763 the Lenape known as Bill Hickman warned English colonists in the Juniata River region of an impending attack. Many Lenape joined in Pontiac's War and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh.19 In April 1763 Teedyuscung was killed when his home was burned. His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. The settlers had been sponsored by the Susquehanna Company.20 The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the new United States government with the Treaty of Fort Pitt signed in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. By then living mostly in the Ohio Country the Lenape supplied the Continental Army with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security. 19th and 20th centuries Amateur anthropologist Silas Wood published a book claiming that there were several American Indian tribes that were distinct to Long Island New York. He collectively called them the Metoac. Modern scientific scholarship has shown that two linguistic groups represented two Algonquian cultural identities on the island not "13 individual tribes" as asserted by Wood. The bands to the west were Lenape. Those to the east were more related culturally to the Algonquian tribes of New England across Long Island Sound.2122 Wood (and earlier settlers) often misinterpreted the Indian use of place names for identity as indicating their name for "tribes." Over a period of 176 years European settlers progressively crowded the Lenape out of the East Coast and Ohio and pressed them to move further west. Most members of the Munsee-language branch of the Lenape live on three Indian reserves in Western Ontario Canada. They are descendants of those Lenape of Ohio Country who sided with the British during the Revolutionary War. The largest reserve is at Moraviantown Ontario where the Turtle clan settled in 1792 following the war. Ohio: 1750s to 1812 (American Revolution and War of 1812) This subsection needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011) After the signing of the Treaty of Easton in 1758 the Lenape were forced to move west out of their native lands (in Delaware New Jersey eastern New York and eastern Pennsylvania) into what is today known as Ohio.23 During the American Revolution the Munsee-speaking Lenape (then called Delaware) bands of the Ohio Country were deeply divided over which side if any to take in the conflict. Years earlier many Lenape had migrated west to Ohio from their territory on the mid-Atlantic coast to try to escape colonial encroachment as well as pressure from Iroquois tribes from the north. They resettled there with bands in numerous villages around their main village of Coshocton.24 By the time of the Revolutionary War the Lenape found their villages lay between the western frontier strongholds of the war's opponents: the American colonists' military outpost at Fort Pitt (present-day Pittsburgh) and the British with Indian allies around Fort Detroit (in present-day Michigan). Some Lenape decided to take up arms against the American colonials and moved to the west closer to Detroit where they settled on the Scioto and Sandusky rivers. Those Lenape sympathetic to the United States remained at Coshocton and leaders signed the Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778) with the Americans. Through this the Lenape hoped to establish the Ohio Country as a state inhabited exclusively by Native Americans as part of the new United States. A third group of Lenape many of them converted Christian Munsees lived in several mission villages run by Moravians. (They spoke the Munsee branch of Delaware an Algonquian language.) White Eyes the Lenape chief who had negotiated the treaty died in 1778. (Some thoughtweasel words he had been murdered by American militia.)citation neededwho Many Lenape at Coshocton eventually joined the war against the Americans. In response Colonel Daniel Brodhead led an expedition out of Fort Pitt and on 19 April 1781 destroyed Coshocton. Surviving residents fled to the north. Colonel Brodhead convinced the militia to leave the Lenape at the Moravian mission villages unmolested since they were unarmed non-combatants. Brodhead's having to restrain the militia from attacking the Moravian villages was a reflection of the brutal nature of frontier warfare. Violence had escalated on both sides. Relations between regular Continental Army officers from the East (such as Brodhead) and western militia were frequently strained. The tensions were worsened by the American government's policy of recruiting some Indian tribes as allies in the war. Western militiamen many of whom had lost friends and family in Indian raids against settlers' encroachment blamed all Indians for the acts of some. Notable Ohio Village Sites This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (April 2011) Hell Town Ohio Village located on Clear Creek known today as Clear Fork near the abandoned town of Newville Ohio.25 The site is on a high hill just north of the junction of Clear Creek and the Black Fork of the Mohican River.25 The reference to the village sitting on a "high hill" counters many popular misconceptions that the village was in low lying areas that would later be submerged by the daming of the ClearFork River to create Pleasant Hill Lake. Hell Town was located along a "war trail" used by Native Americans in the region which ran from a point about 30 miles (48 km) south Sandusky Ohio north-northeast into the Cuyahoga River valley. This trail was later used by white settlers and is today known as State Route 95. Rerouted in the 1940s a portion of this old road and war path are buried under Pleasant Hill Lake.26 From Semi-Weekly News (Mansfield Ohio): 2 August 1898 Vol. 14 No. 64: Helltown -- town of the clear waterwas situated a mile below Newville on the Clear Fork of the Mohican in what is known as the Darling settlement. Helltown was abandoned in 1782 after the massacre of the Moravian Indians at Gnadenhutten and a new village (Greentown) was founded on the Black Fork where a more favorable site for defense was obtained. Greentown was named for Thomas Green a white man who was a Tory and who after aiding the Mohawks in the Wyoming massacre of 1778 sought retreat and seclusion with the Indians in the west.27 From History of Richland County. By A J. Baughman. CHAPTER XVI. Monroe Township: William Norris who lives on a 500-acre farm in "Possum Valley" also owns a fine tract of land which was a part of the original Darling tract at the site of the former Indian village of Helltown where the first bridge below Newville crosses the Clearfork.28 Mohican Johnstown Located south of Jeromesville Ohio.In 1808-09 early white settlers to the area of what is now Jeromesville in Ashland County Ohio on the Jerome Fork of the Mohican River found Delaware people living at the old Mohican village of Johnstown (about three-fourths of a mile southwest of the present site of Jeromesville) near which was located the home of Old Captain Pipe. Many stories of the settlers and the remaining Delaware talk of Old Captain Pipe living there until 1812. Description of portages leading to and from Mohican Johnstown: This trail (Portage Trail) also branched off at Mohican Johnstown passing through Plain township by the Long Meadow or perhaps a little south by Mohican Johns Lake in Wayne county thence across Killbuck some twelve miles south of Wooster where Rogers crossed that stream and probably Col. Crawford also crossed and encamped near O Dells (formerly Mohican Johns Lake) on his expedition to the Moravian settlement on Sandusky creek in Crawford county. There was another trail from Mohican Johnstown running north-west to Greentown by or near the site of GOUDYS old mill to the Quaker springs in Vermillion township; thence southwest over Honey creek to a point about three miles west of Perrysville. This trail afterwards known as the Old Portage road was the route of many of the pioneers in Green township. The trail continued in the direction of the site of Lucas to near Mansfield. From Mohican Johnstown another trail ran up the Jerome fork a favorite route of the Mohicans on their hunting excursions on the Black river; and the north part of Ashland county to the junction of the Catotaway in the eastern part of Montgomery township where it crossed and passed near the residence of Moses LATTA and BURKHOLDERS mill thence up the creek past the old GIERHART farm where resided CATOTAWAY an old Indian hunter after whom the stream was named. There was another trail passed up in the direction of Vermillion lake and down the Vermillion river. Various other trails generally following the course of some stream branched out to different points.29 Greentown - Located west of Perrysville Ohio. Burned during the War of 1812 (August 1812). Coshocton- In 1778 Pipe and the warlike members of his tribe departed from the Tuscarawas and relocated on the Walhonding River about fifteen miles above the present site of Coshocton Ohio. Kilbuck. Also known as Buckstown Notable Ohio Lenape Captain Pipe (1725 1818) Also called Hopocan was an 18th Century chief of the Lenape (Delaware) Indians and a member of the Wolf Clan. White Eyes The Lenape chief who had negotiated the Treaty of Fort Pitt died in 1778. Killbuck30 Killbuck was a tribal leader of the turtle clan of the Delaware Indians. He became a leader when his grandfather Newcomer died in 1776. During the early 1770s missionaries including David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder arrived in the Ohio Country near the Delaware villages. The Moravian Church sent these men to convert the natives to Christianity. The missionaries established several missions including Gnadenhutten Lichtenau and Schoenbrunn. The missionaries asked that the natives forsake all of their traditional customs and ways of life. Many Delawares did adopt Christianity but others refused to do so. The Delawares became a divided people during the 1770s. This was even true for Killbuck's family. Killbuck resented his grandfather for allowing the Moravians to remain in the Ohio Country. The Moravians believed in pacifism and Killbuck believed that every convert to the Moravians deprived the Delawares of a warrior to stop further white settlement of their land. During the French and Indian War Killbuck actively assisted the English against their French enemy. In 1761 Killbuck led an English supply train from Fort Pitt to Fort Sandusky. The British paid him one dollar per day. Killbuck became a leader in a very dangerous time for the Delawares. The American Revolution had just begun and Killbuck found his people caught between the English in the West and the Americans in the East. At the war's beginning Killbuck and many Delawares claimed to be neutral. In 1778 Killbuck did give permission a force of American soldiers to traverse Delaware territory so that the soldiers could attack Fort Detroit. In return Killbuck requested that the Americans build a fort near the natives' major village of Coshocton to provide the Delaware Indians with protection from English attacks. The Americans agreed. While the Delawares had begun to side with the Americans other groups especially the Wyandot Indians the Mingo Indians the Munsee Indians the Shawnee Indians and even the wolf clan of the Delaware Indians favored the British. The English natives planned to attack Fort Laurens in early 1779 and demanded that the neutral Delawares formally side with the British. Killbuck warned the Americans of the planned attack. His actions helped save the fort but the Americans still abandoned it in August 1779. The Delawares had lost their protectors and in theory faced attacks from the English their native allies and even American settlers that flooded into the area in the late 1770s and early 1780s. Most Delaware Indians formally joined the British after the American withdrawal from Fort Laurens. Facing pressure from the British the Americans and even his fellow natives Killbuck hoped a policy of neutrality would save his people from destruction. It did not. Notable Ohio Events and Landmarks Gnadenhtten Massacre The Gnadenhutten massacre also known as the Moravian massacre was the killing on March 8 1782 of ninety-six Christian Lenape (Delaware) by colonial American militia from Pennsylvania during the American Revolutionary War. The incident took place at the Moravian missionary village of Gnadenhtten Ohio near present-day Gnadenhutten. The site of the village was preserved. A reconstructed cabin and cooper's house were built there and a monument to the dead was erected. The village site has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Crawford Expedition The Crawford expedition also known as the Sandusky expedition and Crawford's Defeat was a 1782 campaign on the western front of the American Revolutionary War and one of the final operations of the conflict. Led by Colonel William Crawford the campaign's goal was to destroy enemy American Indian including the Delaware towns along the Sandusky River in the Ohio Country with the hope of ending Indian attacks on American settlers. The expedition was one in a long series of raids against enemy settlements which both sides had conducted throughout the war.31 Crawford led about 500 volunteer militiamen mostly from Pennsylvania deep into American Indian territory with the intention of surprising the Indians. The Indians and their British allies from Detroit had already learned of the expedition however and gathered a force to oppose the Americans. After a day of indecisive fighting near the Sandusky towns the Americans found themselves surrounded and attempted to retreat. The retreat turned into a rout but most of the Americans managed to find their way back to Pennsylvania. About 70 Americans were killed; Indian and British losses were minimal. During the retreat Colonel Crawford and an unknown number of his men were captured. The Indians executed many of these captives in retaliation for the Gnadenhutten massacre that occurred earlier in the year in which about 100 peaceful Indians were murdered by Pennsylvanian militiamen. Crawford's execution was particularly brutal: he was tortured for at least two hours before being burned at the stake. His execution was widely publicized in the United States worsening the already-strained relationship between Native Americans and European Americans. Battle of Olentangey: June 1782 Battle Island: June 1782 Copus Settlement and Massacre: 1812 Burning of Greentown Village Site: August 1812 Pipe's Cliff Pipe's Cliff is in Monroe Township Richland County Ohio nine miles southeast of Mansfield on the Pleasant Valley road a short distance from the Douglass homestead. Pipe's Cliff is named for Capt. Pipe an Indian chieftain of pioneer times from the fact that his sister (Onalaska) was killed upon the summit of those rocks. As the story goes Capt. Pipe's sister was married to a young warrior named Round Head and that after the massacre of the Indians at Gnadenhutten (1781) Round Head with his wife and child in company with several other Indians left their Muskingum village home for the Sandusky country. The party encamped for a rest from their journey on the ledge of rocks now known as Pipe's Cliff and while there were fired upon by a squad of soldiers killing Onalaska and her child and wounding two others of the party. It is stated that the squaw was standing upon a perpendicular rock at the south end of the ledge with her child in her arms and that when shot she fell from the cliff and that her body was buried at its base. When viewed from the road this rock presents a monumental appearance but can best be seen when the leaves are off the trees. This rock is called "Onalaska's Tower" in commemoration of her tragic death. The squad of troops who fired upon this party belonged to Col. Broadhead's expedition against the villages of the forks of the Muskingum known in the history as the "Coshocton campaign" and the soldiers were scouts and could not see through the thick foliage that they fired upon a woman. But as the warriors of the party were enemies Onalaska had to share the consequences of war with her friends with whom she was encamped. Among the names given to different parts of Pipe's Cliff are "Dragon's Mouth" "Hanging Rock" "The Porch" "Altar Rock" "Frowning Cliff" etc. The cliff rises to a height of 100 feet above the valley and commands a fine view of the surrounding country. Around the base and sides of this ledge of rocks are caves and caverns whose depths and lengths have never been explored. There is historical authority to confirm in the main the traditions of the valley concerning the death of Onalaska as above described.32 Indiana to Missouri By the Treaty of St. Marys signed October 3 1818 in St. Mary's Ohio the Delaware ceded their lands in Indiana for lands west of the Mississippi and a annuity of $4000. Over the next few years the Delaware settled on the James River near its confluence with Wilson Creek occupying eventually about 40000 acres (160 km2) of the approximately 2000000 acres (8100 km2) allotted to them.33 Anderson Indiana is named after Chief William Anderson whose father was Swedish. The Delaware Village in Indiana was called Anderson's Town while the Delaware Village in Missouri on the James River was often called Andersons Village. The tribes cabins and cornfields were spread out along the James River and Wilson Creek.34 Role in western history Many Delaware participated in exploration of the western United States working as trappers with the mountain men and as guides and hunters for wagon trains. They also served as army guides and scouts in events such as the Second Seminole War Frmont's expeditions and the conquest of California during the Mexican-American War.353637 Occasionally they played surprising roles as Indian allies.38 One of the more prominent examples was Black Beaver. Born in present-day Illinois near St. Louis in 1806 he began trapping and trading beaver pelts to the white men as a teenager. In his 1859 guide book The Prairie Traveler Randolph Marcy wrote that Black Beaver had visited nearly every point of interest within the limits of our unsettled territory. He had set his traps and spread his blanket upon the head waters of the Missouri and Columbia; and his wanderings had led him south to the Colorado and Gila and thence to the shores of the Pacific in Southern California. His life had been that of a veritable cosmopolite filled with scenes of intense and startling interest bold and reckless adventure. He was with me two seasons in the capacity of guide and I always found him perfectly reliable brave and competent. His reputation as a resolute determined and fearless warrior did not admit of question yet I have never seen a man who wore his laurels with less vanity. The truth is Marcy added my friend Beaver was one of those few heroes who never sounded his own trumpet; yet no one that knows him ever presumed to question his courage. Black Beaver spoke fluent English French Spanish and about ten Indian languages and was able to communicate with even more tribes through sign language. His skills became invaluable to white settlers and military expeditions. When Marcy escorted the first five hundred emigrants from Ft. Smith to California during the gold rush days of 1849 he engaged Black Beaver as his guide. On the way back Black Beaver anxious to return home took a shortcut across the prairie that reduced the two month trip to two weeks. Thousands of future emigrants followed his California Trail west. By 1860 Black Beaver was the wealthiest and most famous Lenape Indian in America and was living comfortably at present-day Anadarko Oklahoma. But that was soon to change. In May 1861 General William H. Emory stationed at Fort Arbuckle learned that 6000 Confederate troops were advancing toward him from Texas and Arkansas. He gathered the soldiers from Forts Washita Cobb and Arbuckle near Minco but to escape to Kansas across the open prairie he would need a guide. All the other Indian guides turned him down because they knew the advancing rebels would punish them for aiding the Union troops. Desperate Emory guaranteed Black Beaver the government would reimburse him for any losses so he agreed to help. He scouted the approaching Confederate troops and provided information for Emory to capture their advance guard the first prisoners captured during the Civil War. Black Beaver then guided over 800 Union soldiers their prisoners 200 teamsters eighty wagons and 600 horses and mules in a mile-long train across 500 miles of open prairie to safety at Fort Leavenworth without the loss of a single man horse or wagon. Sure enough the Confederate Army destroyed Black Beavers ranch and placed a bounty on his head that kept him in Kansas for the rest of the war. His losses were never fully compensated by the government. After the war Black Beaver and his friend Jesse Chisholm returned and converted Black Beavers escape route into what became the Chisholm Trail. Three million head of stray Texas cattle were herded to railheads in Kansas from which they were shipped east to feed a hungry nation. Black Beaver resettled at Anadarko building the first brick home in the area. He had 300 acres of fenced and cultivated land as well as cattle hogs and horses. He died at his home on May 8 1880 and was buried on his ranch. In 1976 his grave was moved to Ft. Sill. He was the first inductee in the American Indian Hall of Fame in Anadarko which is located on part of his ranch. Sagundai accompanied one of John C. Frmont's expeditions as one of his Delaware guides. From California Fremont needed to communicate with Senator Benton. Sagundai volunteered to carry the message through some 2200 kilometres of hostile territory. He took many scalps in this adventure including that of a Comanche with a particularly fine horse who had outspeeding both Sagundai and the other Comanches. Sagundai was thrown when his horse stepped into a prairie-dog hole avoided the Comanche's lance shot him dead and caught his horse by the trailing lariat to make good his own escape. Upon his arrival among his own people the Delawares held the last war and scalp dances in their history. These were held "where Edwin Taylor now (in 1918) lives on the hill" at Edwardsville Kansas.39 Kansas reservation Lenape farm on the Delaware Indian Reservation in Kansas in 1867 By the terms of the "Treaty of the James Fork" made September 24 1829 and ratified by the US Senate in 1830 the Delaware were granted lands west of the Missouri River in Indian Territory in exchange for lands on the James Fork on the White River in Missouri. These lands in what is now Kansas were west of the Missouri River and north of the Kansas River. The main reserve consisted of about 1000000 acres (4000 km2) with an additional "outlet" strip 10 miles (16 km) wide extending to the west.404142 About 1000 Delaware lived on the Delaware Reservation in Kansas many in log cabins but some in substantial farm houses with outbuildings.43 The center of activity was in what is now Muncie Kansas a neighborhood of Kansas City Kansas north of Delaware Crossing on the Kansas River. The Delaware Indian agency the blacksmith and the Baptist and Methodist missions were located there. White encroachment At the same time that Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 which created the Territory of Kansas and opened the area for white settlement it authorized negotiation with Indian tribes regarding removal. The Delaware were reluctant to negotiate but feared serious trouble with white settlers which developed. As the Delaware were not citizens they had no access to the courts and thus no way to enforce their property rights. That was theoretically done by the United States Army after the Indian Agent had followed onerous procedures requiring both posting a public notice warning trespassers and serving written notice on them. Major B.F. Robinson the Indian Agent appointed in 1855 did his best but could not control the hundreds of white trespassers who stole stock cut timber and even built houses and set up housekeeping on Delaware lands. By 1860 the consensus had developed to leave Kansas which was in accord with the government's Indian removal policy.44 Oklahoma The main body of Lenape arrived in the northeast region of Oklahoma in the 1860s.citation needed Along the way many smaller groups left or were told to stay where they were.citation needed Consequently today from New Jersey to Wisconsin to southwest Oklahoma there are groups who retain a sense of connection with ancestors who lived in the Delaware Valley in the 17th century and with cousins in the Lenape diaspora.citation needed The two largest groups are the Delaware Nation (Anadarko Oklahoma) and the Delaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville Oklahoma) the only two federally recognized Lenape (Delaware) tribes in the United States.45 The Oklahoma branches were established in 1867. The Delaware were required to purchase land from the reservation of the Cherokee Nation; they made two payments totaling $438000. A court dispute followed over whether the sale included rights for the Delaware as citizens within the Cherokee Nation. While the dispute was unsettled the Curtis Act of 1898 dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of tribal lands to individual members of tribes. After the lands were allotted in 160 acre (650000 m) lots to tribal members in 1907 the government sold "surplus" land to non-Indians. It soon became obvious that the land was not suitable for subsistence farming on such small plots.citation needed In 1979 the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs revoked the tribal status of the Delaware living among Cherokee in Oklahoma. They began to count the Delaware as Cherokee. The Delaware had this decision overturned in 1996 when they were recognized by the federal government as a separate tribal nation.citation needed The Cherokee Nation filed suit to overturn the recognition of the Delaware. The tribe lost federal recognition in a 2004 court ruling in favor of the Cherokee Nation but regained it on 28 July 2009.46 After recognition the tribe reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. Members approved a constitution and bylaws in a May 26 2009 vote. Jerry Douglas is serving as tribal chief.45 In 2004 the Delaware of Oklahoma sued the state of Pennsylvania over land lost in 1800. This was related to the Walking Purchase of 1737 an agreement of doubtful legal standing.4748 Lenape communities today Oklahoma: Delaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville Oklahoma) US federally recognized Delaware Nation (Anadarko Oklahoma) US federally recognized Ontario Canada: Munsee-Delaware Nation 1 Ontario Canadian reserve Moravian of the Thames First Nation Canadian reserve Delaware of Six Nations (at Six Nations of the Grand River) two Canadian reserves Wisconsin: Stockbridge-Munsee Community US federally recognized Notable Lenape Black Beaver 1806-1880. Trapper trader and scout; first inductee into the American Indian Hall of Fame. Buckongahelas Wolf clan war leader Captain Jacobs War Chief Captain Pipe Wolf clan war chief Charles Journeycake Chief of the Wolf Clan from 1855 and principal chief from 1861. Visited Washington D.C. 24 times on his tribe's behalf.49 Killbuck (Gelelemend) Turtle clan leader Oratam sachem of the Hackensack Neolin the "Delaware Prophet" Shingas Turkey clan war leader Tamanend leader who according to tradition negotiated treaty with William Penn Tamaqua Turkey clan civil leader aka "King Beaver" Teedyuscung "King" of the eastern Delawares White Eyes Turtle clan civil leader Chief Newcomer who founded the village of Gekelmukpechunk in Ohio in the 1760s which white settlers and traders later named after him as Newcomerstown. Dan Barker founder of the Freedom From Religion Foundation Literature The Delaware feature prominently in The Last of the Mohicans and the other Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper. The Delaware are the subject of a legend which inspired the Boy Scouts of America honor society known as the Order of the Arrow. The Walam Olum which purported to be an account of the Delaware's migration to the lands around the Delaware River emerged through the works of Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in the nineteenth century. For many decades scholars believed it was genuine. In the 1980s and 1990s newer textual analysis suggested it was a hoax. Nonetheless some Delaware upon hearing of it for the first time found the account to be plausible. In Cormac McCarthy's Blood Meridian the group of American scalphunters are aided by an unspecified number of Delaware Indians (5-6 minimum) who serve as scouts and guides through the western deserts. In The Light in the Forest True Son is adopted by a band of Lenape. In Mark Raymond Harrington's 1938 book The Indians of New Jersey: Dickon among the Lenapes a group of Lenape find a shipwrecked English boy. His gradual integration provides a backdrop for an examination of Lenape life society weaponry and beliefs. The book includes a glossary for the Lenape terms used throughout it. Trouble's Daughter: The Story of Susanna Hutchinson Indian Captive is a young adult novel of a fictional account of the kidnapping by the Lenape Turtle Clan of a daughter of Anne Hutchinson the religious reformer and founder of the Rhode Island colony. Moon of Two Dark Horses is a novel of the friendship between a white settler and a Lenape boy at the time of the Revolutionary War. Standing in the Light: The Captive Diary of Catharine Carey Logan part of the Dear America series of fictional diaries is a novel by Mary Pope Osborne. It tells the story of the capture of a teenage girl and her brother by a band of Lenape and the youths' gradual assimilation into Lenape culture. Peter Lindestrom's Geographia America with an Account of the Delaware Indians is one of the few sympathetic contemporary accounts (and most reliable)citation neededoriginal research of Lenape life in the lower Delaware River valley during the 17th century. Moravian missionary John Heckewelder published a sympathetic account of the Lenape in exile in the Ohio Valley. His account published in 1818 provides some alternate Lenape tribal history disputing the tributary relationship with the Susquehannock. See also Burial Ridge Ramapough Mountain Indians Walking Purchase Unalachtigo Lenape Museum of Indian Culture Hell Town Ohio (Lenape settlement in Ohio) Economy of the Iroquois Notes Paul Otto 179 "Intercultural Relations Between Native Americans and Europeans in New Netherland and New York" in Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations. Published Suny Press 2009 see New Amsterdam for discussion of the Dutch "purchase" of Manhattan Stevenson W. Fletcher Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life 1640-1840 (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission 1950) 2 35-37 63-65 124. Day Gordon M. The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests. Ecology Vol. 34 #2 (April): 329-346. New England and New York areas 1580-1800. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey and the Massachuset tribe in Massachusetts used fire in ecosystems.1953 Russell Emily W.B. Vegetational Change in Northern New Jersey Since 1500 A.D.: A Palynological Vegetational and Historical Synthesis Ph.D. dissertation. New Brunswick PA: Rutgers University. Author notes on page 8 that Indians often augmented lightning fires. 1979 Russell Emily W.B. "Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States." Ecology Vol. 64 #1 (Feb): 78 88. 1983a Author found no strong evidence that Indians purposely burned large areas but they did burn small areas near their habitation sites. Noted that the Lenna Lenape Tribe used fire. "A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands with the Places Thereunto Adjoining Likewise a Brief Relation of the Customs of the Indians There." New York NY: William Gowans. 1670. Reprinted in 1937 by the Facsimile Text Society Columbia University Press New York. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey used fire in ecosystems. Smithsonian Institution - Handbook of North American Indians series: Handbook of North American Indians Volume 15 - Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger (volume editor). Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquians Virginia Algonquians Northern Iroquois Huron Mahican and Delaware Tribes and peoples. Mark Kurlansky 2006. D. Dreibelbis 1978. Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace 1999. Munroe John A.: Colonial Delaware: A History: Millwood New York: KTO Press; 1978; pp. 9-12 Cook Albert Myers. Narratives of Early Pennsylvania West New Jersey and Delaware 1630-1707. Charles Scribner's Sons 1912 p. 9 F. Jennings p. 117 Spady James. "Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians" in Friends and Enemies in Penn's Woods: Indians Colonists and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania Daniel K. Richter and William A. Pencak ed. University Park PA: PSU Press 2004 pp. 18-40. Gray Elma. Wilderness Christians: Moravian Missions to the Delaware Indians. Ithaca. 1956 Olmstead Earl P. Blackcoats among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the Ohio frontier. Kent Ohio. 1991 Amy C. Schutt. Peoples of the Rivers. p. 118 Schutt. People of the River p. 118 Schutt. People of the River p. 119 Strong John A. Algonquian Peoples of Long Island Heart of the Lakes Publishing (March 1997). ISBN 978-1-55787-148-0 Bragdon Kathleen. The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast. Columbia University Press (January 15 2002). ISBN 978-0-231-11452-3. Keenan Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars 1492-1890 1999 p. 234; Moore The Northwest Under Three Flags 1635-1796 1900 p. 151. William Dean Howells Gnadenhtten Three Villages Boston: James R. Osgood and Co. 1884. accessed 19 Mar 2010 a b Case "Description of Mounds and Earthworks in Ashland County Ohio" in Miscellaneous Papers Relating to Anthropology 1883 p. 74. Cherry The Portage Path 1911 p. 64. Semi-Weekly News (Mansfield Ohio): 02 August 1898 Vol. 14 No. 64 History of Richland County. By A J. Baughman. CHAPTER XVI. Monroe Township Historical collections of Ohio by Henry Howe. 1866. Page 832 Killbuck Ohio History Central July 1 2005 http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.phprec226 For a brief overview of raids and counter-raids on the Western front see Grenier First Way of War 14662. Semi-Weekly News (Mansfield Ohio): 16 August 1898 Vol. 14 No. 68 "Removal Era" accessed September 8 2010 Delaware Town accessed September 8 2010 Weslager The Delaware Indians pp. 375 378-380 Sides Hampton Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West Doubleday (2006) pp. 77-80 94 101 hardcover 462 pages ISBN 978-0-385-50777-6 Page lv of the introduction by Frank McNitt Simpson James H edited and annotated by Frank McNitt forward by Durwood Ball Navaho Expedition: Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fe New Mexico to the Navaho Country Made in 1849 University of Oklahoma Press (1964) trade paperback (2003) 296 pages ISBN 0.8061-3570-0 Sides Blood and Thunder p. 181 A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans written and compiled by William E. Connelley transcribed by Carolyn Ward 1998. http://skyways.lib.ks.us/genweb/archives/1918ks/v1/ch10p8.html accessed 12th March 2011. "BIBLIOGRAPHY DELAWARE INDIANS IN KANSAS 1829-1867 website of the Kansas State Historical Society accessed September 2 2010 9 Indian Claims Commission 346 12 Indian Claims Commission 404 Weslager The Delaware Indians pp. 373-374 Pages 401 to 409. Weslager The Delaware Indians a b "Delaware Tribe regains federal recognition" NewsOk. 4 Aug 2009 (retrieved 5 August 2009) Delaware Tribe of Indians federal recognition restored. Indian Country Today. 7 Aug 2009 (retrieved 11 August 2009) http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jspid1074259221938 Law.com subscription required for access http://www.delawaretribeofindians.nsn.us/walkingpurchase.html "Walking Purchase" Delaware Tribe of Indians S. H. Mitchell (1895) References Weslager C.A. The Delaware Indians: A History Rutgers University Press (1972) hardcover 546 pages ISBN 0-8135-0702-2 External material Bibliography Adams Richard Calmit The Delaware Indians a brief history Hope Farm Press (Saugerties NY 1995) originally published by Government Printing Office (Washington DC 1909) Bierhorst John. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape. New York: W. Morrow 1995. ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown James W. and Rita T. Kohn eds. Long Journey Home ISBN 978-0-253-34968-2. Indiana University Press (2007). Burrows Edward G. and Wallace Mike Gotham: A History of New York City to 1989 ISBN 0-19-514049-4 Oxford Univ. Press (1999). Dreibelbis Dana E. "The Use of Microstructural Growth Patterns of Mercenaria Mercenaria to Determine the Prehistoric Seasons of Harvest at Tuckerton Midden Tuckerton New Jersey" thesis Princeton University 1978. Grumet Robert Steven (2009). The Munsee Indians: a history. Civilization of the American Indian. 262. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806140629. OCLC 317361732.  Jackson Kenneth T. (editor) The Encyclopedia of New York City ISBN 0-300-05536-6 Yale University Press (1995). Jennings Francis The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire 2000 ISBN 0-393-01719-2 Kraft Herbert C. (ed.) A Delaware Indian Symposium Proceedings. Anthropological Series no. 4. Harrisburg PA: Pennsylvania Historical Society Museum Commission 1974. Kraft Herbert C. (ed.) The Lenape Indian: A Symposium. South Orange NJ: Archaeological Research Center Seton Hall University 1984. Kraft Herbert C. The Lenape: archaeology history and ethnography New Jersey Historical Society (Newark NJ 1986) Kraft Herbert C. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: 10000 B.C. to A.D. 2000. Stanhope NJ: Lenape Books 2001. Kurlansky Mark. The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell. Random House Trade Paperbacks (January 9 2007). ISBN 978-0-345-47639-5 Mitchell S. H. The Indian Chief Journeycake. Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society (1895). Available on the Internet Archive O'Meara John Delaware-English / English-Delaware dictionary University of Toronto Press (Toronto 1996) ISBN 0-8020-0670-1. Oestreicher David. "Unmasking the Walam Olum: A 19th-Century Hoax" in Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey #49 1994 p. 10-44. Otto Paul The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley (New York: Berghahn Books 2006). ISBN 1-57181-672-0 Pritchard Evan T. Native New Yorkers: The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York. Council Oak Books: San Francisco 2002 2007 ISBN 1-57178-107-2. Richter Conrad The Light In The Forest (New York NY 1953). Spady James. "Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians". in Daniel K. Richter and William A. Pencak ed. Friends and Enemies in Penn's Woods: Indians Colonists and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania. University Park PA: PSU Press 2004. p. 18-40. 1 Weslager Clinton Alfred The Delaware Indians: A history Rutgers University Press (New Brunswick NJ 1972). Wick Steve. "The First Long Islanders." Newsday.com Accessed July 30 2008 External links Delaware Nation (Anadarko Oklahoma) Delaware Tribe of Indians (Bartlesville OK) Lenape/English dictionary Lenni Lenape Historical Society Lenape (Southern Unami) Talking Dictionary The Indigenous Maps and Mapping of North American Indians