This article is about the planet. For other uses see Mars (disambiguation). Mars   Mars in 1980 as seen by the Viking 1 Orbiter Designations Pronunciation i /mrz/ Adjective Martian Orbital characteristics1 Epoch J2000 Aphelion 249209300 km 1.665 861 AU Perihelion 206669000 km 1.381 497 AU Semi-major axis 227939100 km 1.523 679 AU Eccentricity 0.093 315 Orbital period 686.971 days

1.8808 Julian years 668.5991 sols Synodic period 779.96 days 2.135 Julian years Average orbital speed 24.077 km/s Mean anomaly 19.3564 Inclination 1.850 to ecliptic 5.65 to Sun's equator 1.67 to invariable plane2 Longitude of ascending node 49.562 Argument of perihelion 286.537 Satellites 2 Physical characteristics Equatorial radius 3396.2 0.1 kma3 0.533 Earths Polar radius 3376.2 0.1 kma3 0.531 Earths Flattening 0.005 89 0.000 15 Surface area 144798500 km2 0.284 Earths Volume 1.63181011 km34 0.151 Earths Mass 6.41851023 kg4 0.107 Earths Mean density 3.9335 0.00044 g/cm Equatorial surface gravity 3.711 m/s4 0.376 g Escape velocity 5.027 km/s Sidereal rotation period 1.025 957 day 24.622 9 h4 Equatorial rotation velocity 868.22 km/h (241.17 m/s) Axial tilt 25.19 North pole right ascension 21 h 10 min 44 s 317.681 43 North pole declination 52.886 50 Albedo 0.170 (geometric)5 0.25 (Bond)6 Surface temp.    Kelvin    Celsius min mean max 186 K 210 K6 293 K8 87 C 63 C 20 C Apparent magnitude +1.6 to 3.07 Angular diameter 3.525.1"6 Atmosphere69 Surface pressure 0.636 (0.40.87) kPa Composition (mole fractions)

95.32% carbon dioxide 2.7% nitrogen 1.6% argon 0.13% oxygen 0.08% carbon monoxide 210 ppm water vapor 100 ppm nitric oxide 15 ppm molecular hydrogen10 2.5 ppm neon 850 ppb HDO 300 ppb krypton 130 ppb formaldehyde 80 ppb xenon 30 ppb ozonecitation needed 18 ppb hydrogen peroxide11 10 ppb methane12

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the Roman god of war Mars. It is often described as the "Red Planet" as the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance.13 Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the volcanoes valleys deserts and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth as is the tilt that produces the seasons. Mars is the site of Olympus Mons the highest known mountain within the Solar System and of Valles Marineris the largest canyon. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet and may be a giant impact feature.1415

Until the first flyby of Mars occurred in 1965 by Mariner 4 many speculated about the presence of liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observed periodic variations in light and dark patches particularly in the polar latitudes which appeared to be seas and continents; long dark striations were interpreted by some as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later explained as optical illusions though geological evidence gathered by unmanned missions suggest that Mars once had large-scale water coverage on its surface.16 In 2005 radar data revealed the presence of large quantities of water ice at the poles17 and at mid-latitudes.1819 The Mars rover Spirit sampled chemical compounds containing water molecules in March 2007. The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31 2008.20

Mars has two moons Phobos and Deimos which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids similar to 5261 Eureka a Martian trojan asteroid. Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey Mars Express and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. On the surface are the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity and its recently decommissioned twin Spirit along with several other inert landers and rovers both successful and unsuccessful. The Phoenix lander completed its mission on the surface in 2008. Observations by NASA's now-defunct Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.21

Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches 3.07 a brightness surpassed only by Venus Jupiter the Moon and the Sun. Contents 1 Physical characteristics 1.1 Geology 1.2 Soil 1.3 Hydrology 1.3.1 Polar caps 1.4 Geography 1.4.1 Impact topography 1.4.2 Tectonic sites 1.4.3 Caves 1.5 Atmosphere 1.6 Climate 2 Orbit and rotation 3 Moons 4 Life 5 Exploration 5.1 Past missions 5.2 Current missions 5.3 Future missions 5.4 Manned mission plans 5.5 Astronomy on Mars 6 Viewing 6.1 Closest approaches 6.1.1 Relative 6.1.2 Absolute around the present time 6.2 Historical observations 6.3 Martian 'canals' 7 In culture 7.1 Intelligent "Martians" 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Physical characteristics Size comparison of Earth and Mars.

Mars has approximately half the radius of Earth. It is less dense than Earth having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of the mass. Its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.6 While Mars is larger and more massive than Mercury Mercury has a higher density. This results in the two planets having a nearly identical gravitational pull at the surfacethat of Mars is stronger by less than 1%. Mars is also roughly intermediate in size mass and surface gravity between Earth and Earth's Moon (the Moon is about half the diameter of Mars whereas Earth is twice; the Earth is about nine times more massive than Mars and the Moon one-ninth as massive). The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide more commonly known as hematite or rust.22 Geology Main article: Geology of Mars

Based on orbital observations and the examination of the Martian meteorite collection the surface of Mars appears to be composed primarily of basalt. Some evidence suggests that a portion of the Martian surface is more silica-rich than typical basalt and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth; however these observations may also be explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron(III) oxide dust.2324

Although Mars has no evidence of a current structured global magnetic field25 observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized and that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals has properties that are very similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. One theory published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor) is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars four billion years ago before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and caused the planet's magnetic field to fade away.26 Current models of the planet's interior imply a core region about 1480 km in radius consisting primarily of iron with about 1417% sulfur. This iron sulfide core is partially fluid and has twice the concentration of the lighter elements than exist at Earth's core. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet but now appears to be inactive. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km with a maximum thickness of 125 km.27 Earth's crust averaging 40 km is only one third as thick as Mars crust relative to the sizes of the two planets. During the Solar system formation Mars was created out of the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun as the result of a stochastic process of run-away accretion. Mars has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System. Elements with comparatively low boiling points such as chlorine phosphorus and sulphur are much more common on Mars than Earth; these elements were probably removed from areas closer to the Sun by the young Sun's powerful solar wind.28 After the formation of the planets all were subjected to the "Late Heavy Bombardment". About 60% of the surface of Mars shows an impact record from that era.293031 Much of the rest of the surface of Mars is probably underlain by immense impact basins that date from this timethere is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars spanning 10600 km by 8500 km or roughly four times larger than the Moon's South Pole-Aitken basin the largest impact basin yet discovered.1415 This theory suggests that Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years ago. The event thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet.3233 The geological history of Mars can be split into many periods but the following are the three primary periods:3435 Noachian period (named after Noachis Terra): Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars 4.5 billion years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge a volcanic upland is thought to have formed during this period with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the period. Hesperian period (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 2.93.3 billion years ago. The Hesperian period is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains. Amazonian period (named after Amazonis Planitia): 2.93.3 Gyr ago billion years ago to present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars. Some geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to sheet-like lava flows up to about 200 Mya. Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 Mya indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions.36 On February 19 2008 images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed evidence of an avalanche from a 700 m high cliff.37 Soil Main article: Martian soil The Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing elements such as magnesium sodium potassium and chloride. These nutrients are found in gardens on Earth and are necessary for growth of plants.38 Experiments performed by the Lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic pH of 8.3 and may contain traces of the salt perchlorate.3940 Tharsis Tholus dark streak as seen by Hirise. It is located in the middle left of this picture. Tharsis Tholus is just off to the right. Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters troughs and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age. Sometimes the streaks start in a tiny area which then spreads out for hundreds of metres. They have also been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path. The commonly accepted theories include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils.41 However several explanations have been put forward some of which involve water or even the growth of organisms.4243 Hydrology Main article: Water on Mars Photo of microscopic rock formations indicating past signs of water taken by Opportunity Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure except at the lowest elevations for short periods.4445 However the two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water.4647 The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap if melted would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 meters.48 A permafrost mantle stretches from the pole to latitudes of about 60.46 Large quantities of water ice are thought to be trapped underneath the thick cryosphere of Mars. Radar data from Mars Express and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter show large quantities of water ice both at the poles (July 2005)1749 and at mid-latitudes (November 2008).18 The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31 2008.20 Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has at least at times existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground known as outflow channels cut across the surface in around 25 places. These are thought to record erosion which occurred during the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers though some of these structures have also been hypothesised to result from the action of glaciers or lava.5051 The youngest of these channels are thought to have formed as recently as only a few million years ago.52 Elsewhere particularly on the oldest areas of the martian surface finer-scale dendritic networks of valleys are spread across significant proportions of the landscape. Features of these valleys and their distribution very strongly imply that they were carved by runoff resulting from rain or snow fall in early Mars history. Subsurface water flow and groundwater sapping may play important subsidiary roles in some networks but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases.53 There are also thousands of features along crater and canyon walls that appear similar to terrestrial gullies. The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the southern hemisphere and to face the Equator; all are poleward of 30 latitude. A number of authors have suggested that their formation process demands the involvement of liquid water probably from melting ice5455 although others have argued for formation mechanisms involving carbon dioxide frost or the movement of dry dust.5657 No partially degraded gullies have formed by weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed indicating that these are very young features possibly even active today.55 Other geological features such as deltas and alluvial fans preserved in craters also argue very strongly for warmer wetter conditions at some interval or intervals in earlier Mars history.58 Such conditions necessarily require the widespread presence of crater lakes across a large proportion of the surface for which there is also independent mineralogical sedimentological and geomorphological evidence.59 Some authors have even gone so far as to argue that at times in the martian past much of the low northern plains of the planet were covered with a true ocean hundreds of meters deep though this remains controversial.60 Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite both of which sometimes form in the presence of water.61 Some of the evidence believed to indicate ancient water basins and flows has been negated by higher resolution studies by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.62 However in 2004 Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. This forms only in the presence of acidic water which demonstrates that water once existed on Mars.63 Polar caps Viking Orbiter's view of the northern ice cap of Mars Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter it lies in continuous darkness chilling the surface and causing 2530% of the atmosphere to condense out into thick slabs of CO2 ice (dry ice).64 When the poles are again exposed to sunlight the frozen CO2 sublimes creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.65 The polar caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice. Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick.66 The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 kilometres during the northern Mars summer67 and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick.68 (This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km (km3) for the Greenland ice sheet.) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km.69 The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km.70 Both polar caps show spiral troughs which are believed to form as a result of differential solar heating coupled with the sublimation of ice and condensation of water vapor.7172 The seasonal frosting and defrosting of the southern ice cap results in the formation of spider-like radial channels carved on 1 metre thick ice by sunlight. Then sublimed CO2and probably waterincrease pressure in their interior producing geyser-like eruptions of cold fluids often mixed with dark basaltic sand or mud.73747576 This process is rapid observed happening in the space of a few days weeks or months a growth rate rather unusual in geologyespecially for Mars. Geography Main article: Geography of Mars See also: Category:Surface features of Mars Volcanic plateaus (red) and impact basins (blue) dominate this topographic map of Mars Although better remembered for mapping the Moon Johann Heinrich Mdler and Wilhelm Beer were the first "areographers". They began by establishing that most of Mars surface features were permanent and more precisely determining the planet's rotation period. In 1840 Mdler combined ten years of observations and drew the first map of Mars. Rather than giving names to the various markings Beer and Mdler simply designated them with letters; Meridian Bay (Sinus Meridiani) was thus feature "a."77 Today features on Mars are named from a number of sources. Large albedo features retain many of the older names but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features. For example Nix Olympica (the snows of Olympus) has become Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus).78 The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas with differing albedo. The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian 'continents' and given names like Arabia Terra (land of Arabia) or Amazonis Planitia (Amazonian plain). The dark features were thought to be seas hence their names Mare Erythraeum Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus. The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major Planum.79 The permanent northern polar ice cap is named Planum Boreum while the southern cap is called Planum Australe. Mars equator is defined by its rotation but the location of its Prime Meridian was specified as was Earth's (at Greenwich) by choice of an arbitrary point; Mdler and Beer selected a line in 1830 for their first maps of Mars. After the spacecraft Mariner 9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972 a small crater (later called Airy-0) located in the Sinus Meridiani ("Middle Bay" or "Meridian Bay") was chosen for the definition of 0.0 longitude to coincide with the original selection.80 Since Mars has no oceans and hence no 'sea level' a zero-elevation surface or mean gravity surface also had to be selected. Zero altitude is defined by the height at which there is 610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric pressure.81 This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water and is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth (0.006 atm).82 An approximate true-color image taken by Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity shows the view of Victoria Crater from Cape Verde. It was captured over a three-week period from October 16 November 6 2006. Impact topography The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands pitted and cratered by ancient impacts. Research in 2008 has presented evidence regarding a theory proposed in 1980 postulating that four billion years ago the northern hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one-tenth to two-thirds the size of the Moon. If validated this would make the northern hemisphere of Mars the site of an impact crater 10600 km long by 8500 km wide or roughly the area of Europe Asia and Australia combined surpassing the South Pole-Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System.1415 Mars is scarred by a number of impact craters: a total of 43000 craters with a diameter of 5 km or greater have been found.83 The largest confirmed of these is the Hellas impact basin a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth.84 Due to the smaller mass of Mars the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of the Earth. However Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is also more likely to be struck by short-period comets i.e. those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter.85 In spite of this there are far fewer craters on Mars compared with the Moon because the atmosphere of Mars provides protection against small meteors. Some craters have a morphology that suggests the ground became wet after the meteor impacted.86 Tectonic sites Top down view of Olympus Mons the highest known mountain in the solar system The shield volcano Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus) at 27 km is the highest known mountain in the Solar System.87 It is an extinct volcano in the vast upland region Tharsis which contains several other large volcanoes. Olympus Mons is over three times the height of Mount Everest which in comparison stands at just over 8.8 km.88 The large canyon Valles Marineris (Latin for Mariner Valleys also known as Agathadaemon in the old canal maps) has a length of 4000 km and a depth of up to 7 km. The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 km long and nearly 2 km deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse. Another large canyon is Ma'adim Vallis (Ma'adim is Hebrew for Mars). It is 700 km long and again much bigger than the Grand Canyon with a width of 20 km and a depth of 2 km in some places. It is possible that Ma'adim Vallis was flooded with liquid water in the past.89 Caves THEMIS image of probable Mars cave entrances. The pits have been informally named (A) Dena (B) Chloe (C) Wendy (D) Annie (E) Abby (left) and Nikki and (F) Jeanne. Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the Arsia Mons volcano.90 The caves named after loved ones of their discoverers are collectively known as the "seven sisters."91 Cave entrances measure from 100 m to 252 m wide and they are believed to be at least 73 m to 96 m deep. Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves it is likely that they extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the surface. "Dena" is the only exception; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 m deep. The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids UV radiation solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet's surface.92 Atmosphere Main article: Atmosphere of Mars The tenuous atmosphere of Mars visible on the horizon in this low-orbit photo Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago93 so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected these ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars.9394 Compared to Earth the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied. Atmospheric pressure on the surface ranges from a low of 30 Pa (0.030 kPa) on Olympus Mons to over 1155 Pa (1.155 kPa) in the Hellas Planitia with a mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa (0.60 kPa).95 The surface pressure of Mars is equal to the pressure found 35 km96 above the Earth's surface. This is less than 1% of the Earth's surface pressure (101.3 kPa). The scale height of the atmosphere is about 10.8 km97 which is higher than Earth's (6 km) because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's an effect offset by both the lower temperature and 50% higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of Mars. The atmosphere on Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide 3% nitrogen 1.6% argon and contains traces of oxygen and water.6 The atmosphere is quite dusty containing particulates about 1.5 m in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface.98 Methane has been detected in the Martian atmosphere with a mole fraction of about 30 ppb;1299 it occurs in extended plumes and the profiles imply that the methane was released from discrete regions. In northern midsummer the principal plume contained 19000 metric tons of methane with an estimated source strength of 0.6 kilogram per second.100101 The profiles suggest that there may be two local source regions the first centered near 30 N 260 W and the second near 0 310 W.100 It is estimated that Mars must produce 270 ton/year of methane.100102 The implied methane destruction lifetime may be as long as about 4 Earth years and as short as about 0.6 Earth years.100103 This rapid turnover would indicate an active source of the gas on the planet. Volcanic activity cometary impacts and the presence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources. Methane could also be produced by a non-biological process called serpentinizationb involving water carbon dioxide and the mineral olivine which is known to be common on Mars.104 Climate Mars from Hubble Space Telescope October 28 2005 with dust storm visible. Main article: Climate of Mars Of all the planets in the Solar System the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. However the lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's as Mars greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years long. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about 87 C (125 F) during the polar winters to highs of up to 5 C (23.0 F) in summers.44 The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat the low atmospheric pressure and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil.105 The planet is also 1.52 times as far from the sun as Earth resulting in just 43% of the amount of sunlight.106 If Mars had an Earth-like orbit its seasons would be similar to Earth's because its axial tilt is similar to Earth's. However the comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the north and near aphelion when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the north. As a result the seasons in the southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in the northern are milder than would otherwise be the case. The summer temperatures in the south can reach up to 30 C (54.0 F) warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north.107 Mars also has the largest dust storms in our Solar System. These can vary from a storm over a small area to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun and have been shown to increase the global temperature.108 Orbit and rotation Mars average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (1.5 AU) and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours 39 minutes and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years or 1 year 320 days and 18.2 hours.6 The axial tilt of Mars is 25.19 degrees which is similar to the axial tilt of the Earth.6 As a result Mars has seasons like the Earth though on Mars they are nearly twice as long given its longer year. Currently the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb.9 Mars passed its perihelion in April 2009109 and its aphelion in March 2010.109 The next perihelion comes in March 2011 and the next aphelion in February 2012. Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other planets in the Solar System only Mercury shows greater eccentricity. However it is known that in the past Mars has had a much more circular orbit than it does currently. At one point 1.35 million Earth years ago Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002 much less than that of Earth today.110 The Mars cycle of eccentricity is 96000 Earth years compared to the Earth's cycle of 100000 years.111 However Mars also has a much longer cycle of eccentricity with a period of 2.2 million Earth years and this overshadows the 96000-year cycle in the eccentricity graphs. For the last 35000 years the orbit of Mars has been getting slightly more eccentric because of the gravitational effects of the other planets. The closest distance between the Earth and Mars will continue to mildly decrease for the next 25000 years.112 The image to the left shows a comparison between Mars and Ceres a dwarf planet in the Asteroid Belt as seen from the north ecliptic pole while the image to the right is as seen from the ascending node. The segments of orbits south of the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors. The perihelia (q) and aphelia (Q) are labelled with the date of the nearest passage. The orbit of Mars is shown in red Ceres is in yellow. Moons Main articles: Moons of Mars Phobos (moon) and Deimos (moon) Phobos in color by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter - HiRISE on March 23 2008 Deimos in color on February 21 2009 by the same (not to scale) Mars has two relatively small natural moons Phobos and Deimos which orbit close to the planet. Asteroid capture is a long-favored theory but their origin remains uncertain.113 Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall and are named after the characters Phobos (panic/fear) and Deimos (terror/dread) who in Greek mythology accompanied their father Ares god of war into battle. Ares was known as Mars to the Romans.114115 From the surface of Mars the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear very different from that of our own moon. Phobos rises in the west sets in the east and rises again in just 11 hours. Deimos being only just outside synchronous orbitwhere the orbital period would match the planet's period of rotationrises as expected in the east but very slowly. Despite the 30 hour orbit of Deimos it takes 2.7 days to set in the west as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars then just as long again to rise.116 Because the orbit of Phobos is below synchronous altitude the tidal forces from the planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years it will either crash into Mars surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.116 The origin of the two moons is not well understood. Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids supporting the capture theory. The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point towards a relatively recent capture. But both have circular orbits very near the equator which is very unusual for captured objects and the required capture dynamics are complex. Accretion early in the history of Mars is also plausible but would not account for a composition resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself if that is confirmed. A third possibility is the involvement of a third body or some kind of impact disruption.117 More recent lines of evidence for Phobos having a highly porous interior118 and suggesting a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates and other minerals known from Mars119 point toward an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars that reaccreted in Martian orbit120 similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth's moon. While the VNIR spectra of the moons of Mars resemble those of outer belt asteroids the thermal infrared spectra of Phobos are reported to be inconsistent with chondrites of any class.119 Life Main article: Life on Mars The current understanding of planetary habitabilitythe ability of a world to develop and sustain lifefavors planets that have liquid water on their surface. This most often requires that the orbit of a planet lie within the habitable zone which for the Sun currently extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars.121 During perihelion Mars dips inside this region but the planet's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water however demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Some recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.122 The lack of a magnetosphere and extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimates to a gaseous state). Mars is also nearly or perhaps totally geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.123 Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results including a temporary increase of CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. However this sign of life was later disputed by some scientists resulting in a continuing debate with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life. A re-analysis of the Viking data in light of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life has suggested that the Viking tests were not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life. The tests could even have killed a (hypothetical) life form.124 Tests conducted by the Phoenix Mars lander have shown that the soil has a very alkaline pH and it contains magnesium sodium potassium and chloride.125 The soil nutrients may be able to support life but life would still have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light.126 At the Johnson space center lab some fascinating shapes have been found in the Martian meteorite ALH84001. Some scientists propose that these geometric shapes could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars before the meteorite was blasted into space by a meteor strike and sent on a 15 million-year voyage to Earth. However an exclusively inorganic origin for the shapes has also been proposed.127 Small quantities of methane and formaldehyde recently detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be hints for life as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere.128129 It is remotely possible that these compounds may instead be replenished by volcanic or geological means such as serpentinization.104 Exploration Main article: Exploration of Mars Viking Lander 1 site February 1978 Dozens of spacecraft including orbiters landers and rovers have been sent to Mars by the Soviet Union the United States Europe and Japan to study the planet's surface climate and geology. As of 2008 the price of transporting material from the surface of Earth to the surface of Mars is approximately US$309000 per kilogram.130 Active probes at the Martian system as of 2011 include the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (since 2006) Mars Express (since 2003) 2001 Mars Odyssey (since 2001) and on the surface Opportunity Rover (since 2004). More recently concluded missions include Mars Global Surveyor (19972006) and Spirit Rover (20042010). Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed in one manner or another before completing or even beginning their missions including the difficult late 20th century period of early pioneers and first-timers. In the 21st century failures are much less common.131 Mission failures are typically ascribed to technical problems such as failed or lost communications or design errors often due to inadequate funding or incompetence for a given mission.131 Such failures have given rise to a satirical counter-culture blaming the failures on an Earth-Mars "Bermuda Triangle" a Mars "Curse" or the "Great Galactic Ghoul" that feeds on Martian spacecraft.131 Some of the latest failures include Beagle 2 (2003) Mars Climate Orbiter (1999) and Mars 96 (1996). Past missions Mars 3 lander on a 1972 stamp The first successful fly-by of Mars was on July 1415 1965 by NASA's Mariner 4. On November 14 1971 Mariner 9 became the first space probe to orbit another planet when it entered into orbit around Mars.132 The first objects to successfully land on the surface were two Soviet probes: Mars 2 on November 27 and Mars 3 on December 2 1971 but both ceased communicating within seconds of landing. The 1975 NASA launches of the Viking program consisted of two orbiters each having a lander; both landers successfully touched down in 1976. Viking 1 remained operational for six years Viking 2 for three. The Viking landers relayed color panoramas of Mars133 and the orbiters mapped the surface so well that the images remain in use. The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos 2 while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos failed just before it was set to release two landers to the surface of Phobos.134 Following the 1992 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter the NASA Mars Global Surveyor achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission was a complete success having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program spending exactly 10 operational years in space. The NASA Mars Pathfinder carrying a robotic exploration vehicle Sojourner landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars in the summer of 1997 returning many images.135 Spirit's lander on Mars 2004 View from the Phoenix lander 2008 The NASA Phoenix Mars lander arrived on the north polar region of Mars on May 25 2008.136 Its robotic arm was used to dig into the Martian soil and the presence of water ice was confirmed on June 20.137138138 The mission concluded on November 10 2008 after contact was lost.139 Current missions The NASA Mars Odyssey orbiter entered Mars orbit in 2001.140 Odyssey's Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so of regolith on Mars. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.141 The Mars Express mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) reached Mars in 2003. It carried the Beagle 2 lander which failed during descent and was declared lost in February 2004.142 In early 2004 the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced the orbiter had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.143 In January 2004 the NASA twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B) landed on the surface of Mars. Both have met or exceeded all their targets. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels and thus increased their lifespan.144 On March 10 2006 the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter will map the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. The MRO snapped the first image of a series of active avalanches near the planet's north pole scientists said March 3 2008.145 The Dawn spacecraft flew by Mars in February 2009 for a gravity assist on its way to investigate Vesta and then Ceres.146 Future missions The Mars Science Laboratory named Curiosity will be launched in 2011. It is a larger and more advanced version of the Mars Exploration Rovers with a movement rate of 90 m/h. Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 13 m.147 The joint Russian and Chinese Phobos-Grunt mission to return samples of the Martian moon Phobos is scheduled for launch in 2011. In 2008 NASA announced MAVEN a robotic mission in 2013 to provide information about the atmosphere of Mars.148 In 2018 the ESA plans to launch its first Rover to Mars; the ExoMars rover will be capable of drilling 2 m into the soil in search of organic molecules.149 The Finnish-Russian MetNet mission will land multiple small vehicles on Mars to establish a widespread observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric structure physics and meteorology.150 A precursor mission using one or a few landers is scheduled for launch in 2009 or 2011.151 One possibility is a piggyback launch on the Russian Phobos-Grunt mission.151 Manned mission plans Main article: Manned mission to Mars The ESA hopes to land humans on Mars between 2030 and 2035.152 This will be preceded by successively larger probes starting with the launch of the ExoMars probe153 and a joint NASA-ESA Mars sample return mission.154 Manned exploration by the United States was identified as a long-term goal in the Vision for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by then US President George W. Bush.155 The planned Orion spacecraft would be used to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to a Mars expedition. On September 28 2007 NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a man on Mars by 2037.156 Mars Direct a low-cost human mission proposed by Robert Zubrin founder of the Mars Society would use heavy-lift Saturn V class rockets such as the Space X Falcon X or the Ares V to skip orbital construction LEO rendezvous and lunar fuel depots. A modified proposal called "Mars to Stay" involves not returning the first immigrant explorers immediately if ever (see Colonization of Mars).157 Astronomy on Mars Main article: Astronomy on Mars Phobos transits the Sun as seen by Mars Rover Opportunity on March 10 2004 With the existence of various orbiters landers and rovers it is now possible to study astronomy from the Martian skies. While Mars moon Phobos appears about one third the angular diameter of the full Moon as it appears from Earth Deimos appears more or less star-like and appears only slightly brighter than Venus does from Earth.158 There are also various phenomena well-known on Earth that have now been observed on Mars such as meteors and auroras.143 A transit of the Earth as seen from Mars will occur on November 10 2084.159 There are also transits of Mercury and transits of Venus and the moons Phobos and Deimos are of sufficiently small angular diameter that their partial "eclipses" of the Sun are best considered transits (see Transit of Deimos from Mars).160161 Viewing Animation of the apparent retrograde motion of Mars in 2003 as seen from Earth Because the orbit of Mars is eccentric its apparent magnitude at opposition from the Sun can range from 3.0 to 1.4. The minimum brightness is magnitude +1.6 when the planet is in conjunction with the Sun.7 Mars usually appears a distinct yellow orange or reddish color however the actual color of Mars is closer to butterscotch and the redness seen is actually just dust in the planet's atmosphere; considering this NASA's Spirit rover has taken pictures of a greenish-brown mud-colored landscape with blue-grey rocks and patches of light red colored sand.162 When farthest away from the Earth it is more than seven times as far from the latter as when it is closest. When least favorably positioned it can be lost in the Sun's glare for months at a time. At its most favorable timesat 15- or 17-year intervals and always between late July and late SeptemberMars shows a wealth of surface detail to a telescope. Especially noticeable even at low magnification are the polar ice caps.163 As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping motion with respect to the background stars. The duration of this retrograde motion lasts for about 72 days and Mars reaches its peak luminosity in the middle of this motion.164 Closest approaches Relative The point Mars geocentric longitude is 180 different from the Sun's is known as opposition which is near the time of closest approach to the Earth. The time of opposition can occur as much as 8 days away from the closest approach. The distance at close approach varies between about 54165 and about 103 million km due to the planets' elliptical orbits which causes comparable variation in angular size.166 The last Mars opposition occurred on January 29 2010. The next one will occur on March 3 2012 at a distance of about 100 million km.167 The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars its synodic period is 780 days but the number of days between the dates of successive oppositions can range from 764 to 812.168 As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion which makes it appear to move backwards in a looping motion relative to the background stars. The duration of this retrograde motion is about 72 days. Absolute around the present time Mars oppositions from 20032018 viewed from above the ecliptic with the Earth centered Mars made its closest approach to Earth and maximum apparent brightness in nearly 60000 years 55758006 km (0.372719 AU) magnitude 2.88 on 27 August 2003 at 9:51:13 UT. This occurred when Mars was one day from opposition and about three days from its perihelion making Mars particularly easy to see from Earth. The last time it came so close is estimated to have been on September 12 57 617 BC the next time being in 2287.169 However this record approach was only very slightly closer than other recent close approaches. For instance the minimum distance on August 22 1924 was 0.37285 AU and the minimum distance on August 24 2208 will be 0.37279 AU.111 An email sent during the close approach in 2003 has in succeeding years repeatedly spawned hoax emails saying that Mars will make its closest approach for thousands of years and will look as big as the Moon.170 Historical observations Main article: History of Mars observation The history of observations of Mars is marked by the oppositions of Mars when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible which occur every couple of years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars which occur every 15 or 17 years and are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion making it even closer to Earth. The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by the ancient Egyptian astronomers and by 1534 BCE they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet.171 By the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire the Babylonian astronomers were making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of their behavior. For Mars they knew that the planet made 37 synodic periods or 42 circuits of the zodiac every 79 years. They also invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets.172173 In the fourth century BCE Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation indicating the planet was farther away.174 Ptolemy a Greek living in Alexandria175 attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection Almagest which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries.176 Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE.177 In the fifth century CE the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the diameter of Mars.178 During the seventeenth century Tycho Brahe measured the diurnal parallax of Mars that Johannes Kepler used to make a preliminary calculation of the relative distance to the planet.179 When the telescope became available the diurnal parallax of Mars was again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance. This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. However the early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments.180 The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of October 13 1590 seen by Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg.181 In 1610 Mars was viewed by Galileo Galilei who was first to see it via telescope.182 The first person to draw a map of Mars that displayed any terrain features was the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens.183 Martian 'canals' Map of Mars by Giovanni Schiaparelli Mars sketched as observed by Lowell sometime before 1914. (South top) Map of Mars from Hubble Space Telescope as seen near the 1999 opposition. (North top) Main article: Martian canal By the 19th century the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified. In September 1877 a perihelic opposition of Mars occurred on September 5. In that year Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22 cm telescope in Milan to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called canali which were later shown to be an optical illusion. These canali were supposedly long straight lines on the surface of Mars to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term which means 'channels' or 'grooves' was popularly mistranslated in English as canals.184185 Influenced by the observations the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatory which had a 300 and 450 mm telescope. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars and life on the planet which had a great influence on the public.186 The canali were also found by other astronomers like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon in Nice using one of the largest telescopes of that time.187188 The seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summer) in combination with the canals lead to speculation about life on Mars and it was a long held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation. The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations. However as bigger telescopes were used fewer long straight canali were observed. During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with a 840 mm telescope irregular patterns were observed but no canali were seen.189 Even in the 1960s articles were published on Martian biology putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. Detailed scenarios for the metabolism and chemical cycles for a functional ecosystem have been published.190 It was not until spacecraft visited the planet during NASA's Mariner missions in the 1960s that these myths were dispelled. The results of the Viking life-detection experiments started an intermission in which the hypothesis of a hostile dead planet was generally accepted.191 Some maps of Mars were made using the data from these missions but it was not until the Mars Global Surveyor mission launched in 1996 and operated until late 2006 that complete extremely detailed maps of the martian topography magnetic field and surface minerals were obtained.192 These maps are now available online for example at Google Mars. In culture Main article: Mars in culture Mars is named after the Roman god of war. In different cultures Mars represents masculinity and youth. Its symbol a circle with an arrow pointing out to the upper right is also used as a symbol for the male gender. Intelligent "Martians" An 1893 soap ad playing on the popular idea that Mars was populated. Main article: Mars in fiction The popular idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians exploded in the late 19th century. Schiaparelli's "canali" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying cooling dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works.193 Many other observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been termed "Mars Fever".194 In 1899 while investigating atmospheric radio noise using his receivers in his Colorado Springs lab inventor Nikola Tesla observed repetitive signals that he later surmised might have been radio communications coming from another planet possibly Mars. In a 1901 interview Tesla said: It was some time afterward when the thought flashed upon my mind that the disturbances I had observed might be due to an intelligent control. Although I could not decipher their meaning it was impossible for me to think of them as having been entirely accidental. The feeling is constantly growing on me that I had been the first to hear the greeting of one planet to another.195 Tesla's theories gained support from Lord Kelvin who while visiting the United States in 1902 was reported to have said that he thought Tesla had picked up Martian signals being sent to the United States.196 However Kelvin "emphatically" denied this report shortly before departing America: "What I really said was that the inhabitants of Mars if there are any were doubtless able to see New York particularly the glare of the electricity."197 In a New York Times article in 1901 Edward Charles Pickering director of the Harvard College Observatory said that they had received a telegram from Lowell Observatory in Arizona that seemed to confirm that Mars was trying to communicate with the Earth.198 Early in December 1900 we received from Lowell Observatory in Arizona a telegram that a shaft of light had been seen to project from Mars (the Lowell observatory makes a specialty of Mars) lasting seventy minutes. I wired these facts to Europe and sent out neostyle copies through this country. The observer there is a careful reliable man and there is no reason to doubt that the light existed. It was given as from a well-known geographical point on Mars. That was all. Now the story has gone the world over. In Europe it is stated that I have been in communication with Mars and all sorts of exaggerations have spring up. Whatever the light was we have no means of knowing. Whether it had intelligence or not no one can say. It is absolutely inexplicable.198 Pickering later proposed creating a set of mirrors in Texas with the intention of signaling Martians.199 In recent decades the high resolution mapping of the surface of Mars culminating in Mars Global Surveyor revealed no artifacts of habitation by 'intelligent' life but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars continues from commentators such as Richard C. Hoagland. Reminiscent of the canali controversy some speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images such as 'pyramids' and the 'Face on Mars'. Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote: Mars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears.185 Martian tripod illustration from the 1906 French edition of The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells. The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by nineteenth century scientific speculations that its surface conditions not only might support life but intelligent life.200 Thus originated a large number of science fiction scenarios among which is H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds published in 1898 in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth. A subsequent US radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds on October 30 1938 by Orson Welles was presented as a live news broadcast and became notorious for causing a public panic when many listeners mistook it for the truth.201 Influential works included Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization Edgar Rice Burroughs' Barsoom series C. S. Lewis' novel Out of the Silent Planet (1938)202 the Mars trilogy of Kim Stanley Robinson and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties.203 Author Jonathan Swift made reference to the moons of Mars about 150 years before their actual discovery by Asaph Hall detailing reasonably accurate descriptions of their orbits in the 19th chapter of his novel Gulliver's Travels.204 A comic figure of an intelligent Martian Marvin the Martian appeared on television in 1948 as a character in the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers and has continued as part of popular culture to the present.205 After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is an apparently lifeless and canal-less world these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned and a vogue for accurate realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy. However pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction especially in film.206 The theme of a Martian colony that fights for independence from Earth is a major plot element in the novels of Greg Bear and Kim Stanley Robinson as well as the movie Total Recall (based on a short story by Philip K. Dick) and the television series Babylon 5. Some video games also use this element including Red Faction and the Zone of the Enders series. Mars (and its moons) were also the setting for the popular Doom video game franchise and the later Martian Gothic. See also Mars portal Solar System portal Book: Solar System Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. 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StarrySkies.com. http://starryskies.com/Artshtml/dln/5-98/mars.html. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  External links This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links. (June 2011) Find more about Mars on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Mars at the Open Directory Project Mars Exploration Program On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet 19581978 from the NASA History Office. Mars UnearthedComparisons of terrains between Earth and Mars Be on MarsAnaglyphs from the Mars Rovers (3D) Mars articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries Geody MarsWorld's search engine that supports NASA World Wind Celestia and other applications Mars SocietyThe Mars Society an international organization dedicated to the study exploration and settlement of Mars. NASA/JPL OnMars WMS Server for Mars DataWork as Google Earth client overlays Media Computer Simulation of a flyby through Mariner Valley Movie of Mars at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Flight Into Mariner ValleyNASA/JPL/Arizona State University 3D flythrough of Valles Marineris Mars Astronomy Cast episode #52 includes full transcript 15 Amazing Pictures of the Red Planet  slideshow at The Huffington Post Cartographic resources Gazeteer of Planetary NomenclatureMars (USGS) PDS Map-a-planet Viking Photomap MOLA (topographic) map 3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind Google MarsInteractive image of Mars Ralph Aeschliman's Online Atlas of Mars v d eThe Solar System The Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Haumea Makemake Eris Moons (Terrestrial Martian Jovian Saturnian Uranian Neptunian Plutonian Haumean Eridian) Rings (Jovian Saturnian Uranian Neptunian) Meteoroids Minor planets (Asteroids (Main belt) Centaurs TNOs (Kuiper belt Scattered disc) ) Comets (Oort cloud) Related articles: astronomical object star planet dwarf planet small body and planetary system See also the Solar System's list of objects sorted by size the list of minor planets or the Solar System Portal v d eMars Areography General Albedo features (Solis Lacus)  Atmosphere  Canals (list)  Climate  Water  Life  North Polar Basin  Chaos terrain Regions Cydonia  Planum Boreum  Planum Australe  Cerberus Hemisphere  Vastitas Borealis  Iani Chaos  Quadrangles  Tharsis  Ultimi Scopuli  Eridania Lake  Olympia Undae  Elysium Planitia  Valles Marineris Mountains Listed by height  Echus Montes  Volcanoes Alba Mons  Albor Tholus  Arsia Mons  Ascraeus Mons  Biblis Tholus  Elysium Mons  Hecates Tholus  Olympus Mons  Pavonis Mons  Syrtis Major Planum  Tharsis  Tharsis Montes Craters Catenae  North Polar Basin  Hellas Planitia  Argyre Planitia  Schiaparelli  Gusev  Eberswalde  Bonneville  Eagle  Endeavour  Endurance  Erebus  Victoria   Galle   Ibragimov  Santa Maria Areology Carbonates  Spherules  Martian geyser  Swiss cheese features Mars portal Moons Phobos  Deimos Discovery  Features (Phobos  Deimos)  Stickney crater (Phobos)  Phobos monolith   Phobos and Deimos in fiction Exploration Colonization  Phobos program  Viking program  Mars Pathfinder  Mars Exploration Rover  Spirit-observed features  Opportunity-observed features  HiRISE  Manned mission  Mars landing  Mars rover  Artificial objects on Mars  Terraforming Observation History of Mars observation  Martian canal Astronomy Eclipses Solar eclipses on Mars Transits Deimos  Phobos  Earth  Mercury  Venus Meteorites Mars meteorite  ALH84001  Chassigny  Kaidun  Shergotty  Nakhla Other topics Mars-crosser asteroid  2007 WD5  Darian calendar  Timekeeping on Mars  Mars Society  Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station  Haughton-Mars Project  Martian  Mars to Stay  Flag of Mars  Mars in fiction   Mars Ocean Hypothesis  Caves of Mars Project