For other uses see Mind (disambiguation).

The concept of mind ( /mand/) is understood in many different ways by many different traditions ranging from panpsychism and animism to traditional and organized religious views as well as secular and materialist philosophies. Most agree that minds are constituted by conscious experience and intelligent thought. Common attributes of mind include perception reason imagination memory emotion attention free-will and a capacity for communication. A rich set of unconscious processes are also included in many modern characterizations of mind.

Theories of mind and its function are numerous. Earliest recorded speculations are from the likes of Zoroaster the Buddha Plato Aristotle and other ancient Greek Indian and later Islamic and medieval European philosophers. Pre-modern understandings of the mind such as the neoplatonic "nous" saw it as an aspect of the soul in the sense of being both divine and immortal linking human thinking with the un-changing ordering principle of the cosmos itself.

Which attributes make up the mind is much debated. Some psychologists argue that only the "higher" intellectual functions constitute mind particularly reason and memory. In this view the emotionslove hate fear joyare more primitive or subjective in nature and should be seen as different from the mind as such. Others argue that various rational and emotional states cannot be so separated that they are of the same nature and origin and should therefore be considered all part of what we call the mind.

In popular usage mind is frequently synonymous with thought: the private conversation with ourselves that we carry on "inside our heads." Thus we "make up our minds" "change our minds" or are "of two minds" about something. One of the key attributes of the mind in this sense is that it is a private sphere to which no one but the owner has access. No one else can "know our mind." They can only interpret what we consciously or unconsciously communicate. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Mental faculties 3 Mental content 4 Brain and mind 5 Philosophy of mind 5.1 Mind/body perspectives 5.2 Other perspectives 6 Science of mind 6.1 Psychology 6.2 Evolutionary psychology 7 Evolutionary history of the human mind 8 Mental health 9 Animal intelligence 10 Artificial intelligence 11 Religious perspectives 12 Other perspectives 12.1 Parapsychology 12.2 Memetics 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Etymology Further information: Geist

The original meaning of Old English gemynd was the faculty of memory not of thought in general. Hence call to mind come to mind keep in mind to have mind of etc. Old English had other words to express "mind" such as hyge "mind spirit".

The generalization of mind to include all mental faculties thought volition feeling and memory gradually develops over the 14th and 15th centuries.1

The meaning of "memory" is shared with Old Norse which has munr. The word is originally from a PIE verbal root *men- meaning "to think remember" whence also Latin mens "mind" Sanskrit manas "mind" and Greek  "mind courage anger". Mental faculties See also: Reason Faculty psychology and Modularity of mind

Broadly speaking mental faculties are the various functions of the mind or things the mind can "do".

Thought is a mental activity which allows human beings to make sense of things in the world and to represent and interpret them in ways that are significant or which accord with their needs attachments goals commitments plans ends desires etc. Thinking involves the symbolic or semantic mediation of ideas or data as when we form concepts engage in problem solving reasoning and making decisions. Words that refer to similar concepts and processes include deliberation cognition ideation discourse and imagination. Thinking is sometimes described as a "higher" cognitive function and the analysis of thinking processes is a part of cognitive psychology. It is also deeply connected with our capacity to make and use tools; to understand cause and effect; to recognize patterns of significance; to comprehend and disclose unique contexts of experience or activity; and to respond to the world in a meaningful way. The subject of memory is treated in the film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) directed by Michel Gondry. Memory is the ability to preserve retain and subsequently recall knowledge information or experience. Although memory has traditionally been a persistent theme in philosophy the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries also saw the study of memory emerge as a subject of inquiry within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In recent decades it has become one of the pillars of a new branch of science called cognitive neuroscience a marriage between cognitive psychology and neuroscience. The subject of memory has also been addressed in highly sophisticated ways in classic works of 20th century literature notably in the novel of Marcel Proust and in popular films e.g. Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind. Imagination is the activity of generating or evoking novel situations images ideas or other qualia in the mind. It is a characteristically subjective activity rather than a direct or passive experience. The term is technically used in psychology for the process of reviving in the mind percepts of objects formerly given in sense perception. Since this use of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language some psychologists have preferred to describe this process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as "reproductive" as opposed to "productive" or "constructive" imagination. Things that are imagined are said to be seen in the "mind's eye". Among the many practical functions of imagination are the ability to project possible futures (or histories) to "see" things from another's perspective and to change the way something is perceived including to make decisions to respond to or enact what is imagined. Consciousness in mammals (this includes humans) is an aspect of the mind generally thought to comprise qualities such as subjectivity sentience and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. It is a subject of much research in philosophy of mind psychology neuroscience and cognitive science. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness which is subjective experience itself and access consciousness which refers to the global availability of information to processing systems in the brain.2 Phenomenal consciousness has many different experienced qualities often referred to as qualia. Phenomenal consciousness is usually consciousness of something or about something a property known as intentionality in philosophy of mind. Mental content Mental contents are those items which are thought of as being "in" the mind and capable of being formed and manipulated by mental processes and faculties. Examples include thoughts concepts memories emotions percepts and intentions. Philosophical theories of mental content include internalism externalism representationalism and intentionality. Brain and mind See also: Cognitive science In animals the brain or encephalon (Greek for "in the head") is the control center of the central nervous system responsible for thought. In most animals the brain is located in the head protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision hearing equilibrioception taste and olfaction. While all vertebrates have a brain most invertebrates have either a centralized brain or collections of individual ganglia. Primitive animals such as sponges do not have a brain at all. Brains can be extremely complex. For example the human brain contains more than 100 billion neurons each linked to as many as 10000 otherscitation needed. Understanding the relationship between the brain and the mind mind-body problem is one of the central issues in the history of philosophy is a challenging problem both philosophically and scientifically.3 There are three major philosophical schools of thought concerning the answer: dualism materialism and idealism. Dualism holds that the mind exists independently of the brain;4 materialism holds that mental phenomena are identical to neuronal phenomena;5 and idealism holds that only mental phenomena exist.5 The most straightforward scientific evidence that there is a strong relationship between the physical brain matter and the mind is the impact physical alterations to the brain have on the mind such as with traumatic brain injury and psychoactive drug use.6 In addition to the philosophical questions the relationship between mind and brain involves a number of scientific questions including understanding the relationship between mental activity and brain activity the exact mechanisms by which drugs influence cognition and the neural correlates of consciousness. Through most of history many philosophers found it inconceivable that cognition could be implemented by a physical substance such as brain tissue (that is neurons and synapses).7 Philosophers such as Patricia Churchland posit that the drug-mind interaction is indicative of an intimate connection between the brain and the mind not that the two are the same entity.8 Descartes who thought extensively about mind-brain relationships found it possible to explain reflexes and other simple behaviors in mechanistic terms although he did not believe that complex thought and language in particular could be explained by reference to the physical brain alone.9 Philosophy of mind See also: Philosophy of mind Philosophy of mind is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind mental events mental functions mental properties consciousness and their relationship to the physical body. The mind-body problem i.e. the relationship of the mind to the body is commonly seen as the central issue in philosophy of mind although there are other issues concerning the nature of the mind that do not involve its relation to the physical body.10 Dualism and monism are the two major schools of thought that attempt to resolve the mind-body problem. Dualism is the position that mind and body are in some way separate from each other. It can be traced back to Plato11 Aristotle121314 and the Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy15 but it was most precisely formulated by Ren Descartes in the 17th century.16 Substance dualists argue that the mind is an independently existing substance whereas Property dualists maintain that the mind is a group of independent properties that emerge from and cannot be reduced to the brain but that it is not a distinct substance.17 The 20th century philosopher Martin Heidegger suggested that subjective experience and activity (i.e. the "mind") cannot be made sense of in terms of Cartesian "substances" that bear "properties" at all (whether the mind itself is thought of as a distinct separate kind of substance or not). This is because the nature of subjective qualitative experience is incoherent in terms of  or semantically incommensurable with the concept of  substances that bear properties. This is a fundamentally ontological argument.18 Mind/body perspectives Monism is the position that mind and body are not physiologically and ontologically distinct kinds of entities. This view was first advocated in Western Philosophy by Parmenides in the 5th Century BC and was later espoused by the 17th Century rationalist Baruch Spinoza.19 According to Spinoza's dual-aspect theory mind and body are two aspects of an underlying reality which he variously described as "Nature" or "God". Physicalists argue that only the entities postulated by physical theory exist and that the mind will eventually be explained in terms of these entities as physical theory continues to evolve. Idealists maintain that the mind is all that exists and that the external world is either mental itself or an illusion created by the mind. Neutral monists adhere to the position that perceived things in the world can be regarded as either physical or mental depending on whether one is interested in their relationship to other things in the world or their relationship to the perceiver. For example a red spot on a wall is physical in its dependence on the wall and the pigment of which it is made but it is mental in so far as its perceived redness depends on the workings of the visual system. Unlike dual-aspect theory neutral monism does not posit a more fundamental substance of which mind and body are aspects. The most common monisms in the 20th and 21st centuries have all been variations of physicalism; these positions include behaviorism the type identity theory anomalous monism and functionalism.20 Many modern philosophers of mind adopt either a reductive or non-reductive physicalist position maintaining in their different ways that the mind is not something separate from the body.20 These approaches have been particularly influential in the sciences e.g. in the fields of sociobiology computer science evolutionary psychology and the various neurosciences.21222324 Other philosophers however adopt a non-physicalist position which challenges the notion that the mind is a purely physical construct. Reductive physicalists assert that all mental states and properties will eventually be explained by scientific accounts of physiological processes and states.252627 Non-reductive physicalists argue that although the brain is all there is to the mind the predicates and vocabulary used in mental descriptions and explanations are indispensable and cannot be reduced to the language and lower-level explanations of physical science.2829 Continued neuroscientific progress has helped to clarify some of these issues. However they are far from having been resolved and modern philosophers of mind continue to ask how (if at all) the subjective qualities and the intentionality (aboutness) of mental states and properties can be explained in naturalistic terms.3031 Other perspectives Jose M.R. Delgado writes "Aristotelian thought has permeated most Occidental philosophical system until modern times and the classification of man's function as vegetative sensitive and rational is still useful. In present popular usage soul and mind are not clearly differentiated and some people more or less consciously still feel that the soul and perhaps the mind may enter or leave the body as independent entities." 32 Science of mind Psychology See also: Sigmund Freud Carl Jung and Unconscious mind Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour mental functioning and experience; noology the study of thought. As both an academic and applied discipline Psychology involves the scientific study of mental processes such as perception cognition emotion personality as well as environmental influences such as social and cultural influences and interpersonal relationships in order to devise theories of human behaviour. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental health problems. Psychology differs from the other social sciences (e.g. anthropology economics political science and sociology) due to its focus on experimentation at the scale of the individual or individuals in small groups as opposed to large groups institutions or societies. Historically psychology differed from biology and neuroscience in that it was primarily concerned with mind rather than brain. Modern psychological science incorporates physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of perception cognition behaviour and mental disorders. Evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology (EP) is an approach within psychology that examines psychological traits such as memory perception or language from a Darwinian evolutionary perspective. It seeks to explain how many human psychological traits are evolved adaptations that is the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms such as the heart lungs and immune system is common in evolutionary biology. Evolutionary psychology applies the same thinking to psychology. Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior originates as psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments.33 Further information: Evolutionary neuroscience Konrad Lorentz E O Wilson The Adapted Mind and Steven Pinker Evolutionary history of the human mind The evolution of human intelligence refers to a set of theories that attempt to explain how human intelligence has evolved. The question is closely tied to the evolution of the human brain and to the emergence of human language. The timeline of human evolution spans some 7 million years from the separation of the Pan genus until the emergence of behavioral modernity by 50000 years ago. Of this timeline the first 3 million years concern Sahelanthropus the following 2 million concern Australopithecus while the final 2 million span the history of actual human species (the Paleolithic). Many traits of human intelligence such as empathy theory of mind mourning ritual and the use of symbols and tools are already apparent in great apes although in lesser sophistication than in humans. There is a debate between supporters of the idea of a sudden emergence of intelligence or "Great leap forward" and those of a gradual or continuum hypothesis. Theories of the evolution of intelligence include: Robin Dunbar's social brain hypothesis34 Geoffrey Miller's sexual selection hypothesis35 The ecological dominance-social competition (EDSC) 36 explained by Mark V. Flinn David C. Geary and Carol V. Ward based mainly on work by Richard D. Alexander. The idea of intelligence as a signal of good health and resistance to disease. The Group selection theory contends that organism characteristics that provide benefits to a group (clan tribe or larger population) can evolve despite individual disadvantages such as those cited above. The idea that intelligence is connected with nutrition and thereby with status37 A higher IQ could be a signal that an individual comes from and lives in a physical and social environment where nutrition levels are high and vice versa. Mental health Main article: Mental health By analogy with the health of the body one can speak metaphorically of a state of health of the mind or mental health. Merriam-Webster defines mental health as "A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities function in society and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life." According to the World Health Organization (WHO) there is no one "official" definition of mental health. Cultural differences subjective assessments and competing professional theories all affect how "mental health" is defined. In general most experts agree that "mental health" and "mental illness" are not opposites. In other words the absence of a recognized mental disorder is not necessarily an indicator of mental health. One way to think about mental health is by looking at how effectively and successfully a person functions. Feeling capable and competent; being able to handle normal levels of stress maintaining satisfying relationships and leading an independent life; and being able to "bounce back" or recover from difficult situations are all signs of mental health. Psychotherapy is an interpersonal relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living. This usually includes increasing individual sense of well-being and reducing subjective discomforting experience. Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship building dialogue communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient or to improve group relationships (such as in a family). Most forms of psychotherapy use only spoken conversation though some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word art drama narrative story or therapeutic touch. Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s). Purposeful theoretically based psychotherapy began in the 19th century with psychoanalysis; since then scores of other approaches have been developed and continue to be created. Animal intelligence Animal cognition or cognitive ethology is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of animals. It has developed out of comparative psychology but has also been strongly influenced by the approach of ethology behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology. Much of what used to be considered under the title of animal intelligence is now thought of under this heading. Animal language acquisition attempting to discern or understand the degree to which animal cognition can be revealed by linguistics-related study has been controversial among cognitive linguists. Artificial intelligence This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007) Main article: Philosophy of artificial intelligence In 1950 Alan M. Turing published "Computing machinery and intelligence" in Mind in which he proposed that machines could be tested for intelligence using questions and answers. This process is now named the Turing Test. The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was first used by John McCarthy who considers it to mean "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines".38 It can also refer to intelligence as exhibited by an artificial (man-made non-natural manufactured) entity. AI is studied in overlapping fields of computer science psychology neuroscience and engineering dealing with intelligent behavior learning and adaptation and usually developed using customized machines or computers. Research in AI is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks requiring intelligent behavior. Examples include control planning and scheduling the ability to answer diagnostic and consumer questions handwriting natural language speech and facial recognition. As such the study of AI has also become an engineering discipline focused on providing solutions to real life problems knowledge mining software applications strategy games like computer chess and other video games. One of the biggest difficulties with AI is that of comprehension. Many devices have been created that can do amazing things but critics of AI claim that no actual comprehension by the AI machine has taken place. The debate about the nature of the mind is relevant to the development of artificial intelligence. If the mind is indeed a thing separate from or higher than the functioning of the brain then hypothetically it would be much more difficult to recreate within a machine if it were possible at all. If on the other hand the mind is no more than the aggregated functions of the brain then it will be possible to create a machine with a recognisable mind (though possibly only with computers much different from today's) by simple virtue of the fact that such a machine already exists in the form of the human brain. Religious perspectives Various religious traditions have contributed unique perspectives on the nature of mind. In many traditions especially mystical traditions overcoming the ego is considered a worthy spiritual goal. Judaism teaches that "moach shalit al halev" the mind rules the heart. Humans can approach the Divine intellectually through learning and behaving according to the Divine Will as enclothed in the Torah and use that deep logical understanding to elicit and guide emotional arousal during prayer. Christianity has tended to see the mind as distinct from the soul (Greek nous) and sometimes further distinguished from the spirit. Western esoteric traditions sometimes refer to a mental body that exists on a plane other than the physical. Hinduism's various philosophical schools have debated whether the human soul (Sanskrit atman) is distinct from or identical to Brahman the divine reality. Buddhism posits that there is actually no distinct thing as a human being who merely consists of five aggregates or skandhas. According to Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti mind is defined as "that which is clarity and cognizes"where 'clarity' refers to the formless nature of the mind and 'cognizes' to the function of mind namely that every mind must cognize an object.39 The Indian philosopher-sage Sri Aurobindo attempted to unite the Eastern and Western psychological traditions with his integral psychology as have many philosophers and New religious movements. Taoism sees the human being as contiguous with natural forces and the mind as not separate from the body. Confucianism sees the mind like the body as inherently perfectible. See also: Buddhism and psychology Other perspectives Parapsychology Parapsychology is the scientific study of certain types of paranormal phenomena or of phenomena which appear to be paranormal.40 for instance precognition telekinesis and telepathy. The term is based on the Greek para (beside/beyond) psyche (soul/mind) and logos (account/explanation) and was coined by psychologist Max Dessoir in or before 1889.41 J. B. Rhine later popularized "parapsychology" as a replacement for the earlier term "psychical research" during a shift in methodologies which brought experimental methods to the study of psychic phenomena.41 Parapsychology is controversial with many scientists believing that psychic abilities have not been demonstrated to exist.4243444546 The status of parapsychology as a science has also been disputed47 with many scientists regarding the discipline as pseudoscience.484950 Memetics Memetics is a theory of mental content based on an analogy with Darwinian evolution which was originated by Richard Dawkins and Douglas Hofstadter in the 1980s. It purports to be an approach to evolutionary models of cultural information transfer. A meme analogous to a gene is an idea belief pattern of behaviour (etc.) which is "hosted" in one or more individual minds and which can reproduce itself from mind to mind. Thus what would otherwise be regarded as one individual influencing another to adopt a belief is seen memetically as a meme reproducing itself. As with genetics particularly under Dawkins's interpretation a meme's success may be due its contribution to the effectiveness of its host (i.e. a the meme is a useful beneficial idea) or may be "selfish" in which case it could be considered a "virus of the mind". See also Philosophy portal Mind and Brain portal Cognitive sciences Conscience Mental state Mental energy Mind at Large Neural Darwinism Subjective character of experience Theory of mind Skandha References OED; etymonline.com Ned Block: On a Confusion about a Function of Consciousness" in: The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1995. 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(1996) "Dualism" in Samuel Guttenplan (org) A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind Blackwell Oxford 2657. Hubert Dreyfus "Critique of Descartes I" (recorded lecture) University of California at Berkeley Sept. 18 2007. Spinoza Baruch (1670) Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (A Theologico-Political Treatise). a b Kim J. "Mind-Body Problem" Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Ted Honderich (ed.). Oxford:Oxford University Press. 1995. Pinel J. Psychobiology (1990) Prentice Hall Inc. ISBN 8815071741 LeDoux J. (2002) The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are New York: Viking Penguin. ISBN 8870787958 Russell Stuart J.; Norvig Peter (2003) Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle River New Jersey: Prentice Hall ISBN 0-13-790395-2 http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/  Dawkins R. The Selfish Gene (1976) Oxford:Oxford University Press. ISBN Churchland Patricia (1986). Neurophilosophy: Toward a Unified Science of the Mind-Brain.. MIT Press. 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Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited Toronto citebook. p. 25.  Confer Easton Fleischman Goetz Lewis Perilloux & Buss 2010; Buss 2005; Durrant & Ellis 2003; Pinker 2002; Tooby & Cosmides 2005 The Social Brain Hypothesis Miller. The Mating Mind. ISBN 0805857494.  "Flinn M. V. Geary D. C. & Ward C. V. (2005). Ecological dominance social competition and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence". http://web.missouri.edu/gearyd/Flinnetal2005.pdf. 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National Academy Press Washington D.C.. p. 22. ISBN 0-309-07465-7.  Reuters (5 September 2003). "Telepathy gets academic in Sweden". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2003/EDUCATION/09/05/offbeat.telepathy.reut/index.html. Retrieved 9 March 2009. "Despite decades of experimental research ... there is still no proof that gifts such as telepathy and the ability to see the future exist mainstream scientists say."  Flew Antony (1982). "Parapsychology: Science or Pseudoscience". In Grim Patrick. Philosophy of Science and the Occult.  Cordn Luis A. (2005). Popular psychology: an encyclopedia. Westport Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 182. ISBN 0-313-32457-3. "The essential problem is that a large portion of the scientific community including most research psychologists regards parapsychology as a pseudoscience due largely to its failure to move beyond null results in the way science usually does. Ordinarily when experimental evidence fails repeatedly to support a hypothesis that hypothesis is abandoned. Within parapsychology however more than a century of experimentation has failed even to conclusively demonstrate the mere existence of paranormal phenomenon yet parapsychologists continue to pursue that elusive goal."  Bunge Mario (1991). "A skeptic's beliefs and disbeliefs". New Ideas in Psychology 9 (2): 131149. doi:10.1016/0732-118X(91)90017-G.  Blitz David (1991). "The line of demarcation between science and nonscience: The case of psychoanalysis and parapsychology". New Ideas in Psychology 9 (2): 163170. doi:10.1016/0732-118X(91)90020-M.  External links Find more about Mind on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Consciousness studies C. D. Broad The Mind and Its Place in Nature 1925. Abhidhamma: Buddhist Perspective of the Mind and the Mental Functions Buddhist View of the Mind Current Scientific Research on the Mind and Brain From ScienceDaily R. Shayna Rosenbaum Donald T. Stuss Brian Levine Endel Tulving "Theory of Mind Is Independent of Episodic Memory" Science 23 November 2007: Vol. 318. no. 5854 p. 1257 The Extended Mind by Andy Clark & David J. Chalmers The Mind and the Brain A site exploring J. Krishnamurti's view of the Mind. ThinkQuest: Think.com Oracle Education Foundation Projects Competition Library History of Artificial Intelligence. Loebner.net Description by Turing of testing machines for intelligence. Discourse on the mind by Swami Parmanand Ji Maharaj of Bhagwat Bhakti Ashram. 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