This article is about the country. For other uses see Peru (disambiguation). Republic of Peru Repblica del Per  (Spanish) Flag Coat of arms Anthem: "Himno Nacional del Per"  (Spanish) "National Anthem of Peru" Capital (and largest city) Lima 122.6S 771.7W / 12.0433S 77.0283W / -12.0433; -77.0283 Official language(s) Spanish1 Demonym Peruvian Government Presidential republic  -  President Alan Garca  -  Prime Minister Rosario Fernndez  -  President-elect Ollanta Humala Independence from Spain   -  Declared July 28 1821   -  Consolidated December 9 1824   -  Recognized August 14 1879  Area  -  Total 1285216 km2 (20th) 496225 sq mi   -  Water (%) 0.41 Population  -  2010 estimate 29496000 (40th)  -  2007 census 28220764   -  Density 23/km2 (191st) 57/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate  -  Total $299.648 billion1   -  Per capita $99851  GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate  -  Total $167.846 billion1   -  Per capita $55931  Gini (2010) 0.46 (high)  HDI (2010) 0.7232 (high) (63rd) Currency Nuevo Sol (PEN) Time zone PET (UTC-5)  -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC) Drives on the right ISO 3166 code PE Internet TLD .pe Calling code +51 1 Quechua Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.

Peru (i /pru/; Spanish: Per; Quechua: Per;3 Aymara: Piruw) officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: Repblica del Per pronounced repulika el peu ( listen)) is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia on the east by Brazil on the southeast by Bolivia on the south by Chile and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization one of the oldest in the world and to the Inca Empire the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821 Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 31%. Its main economic activities include agriculture fishing mining and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population estimated at 29.5 million is multiethnic including Amerindians Europeans Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art cuisine literature and music. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Government 4 Regions 5 Geography 6 Economy 7 Demographics 8 Culture 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links 13 Related information Etymology

The word Peru is derived from Bir the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel Panama in the early 16th century.4 When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522 they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.5 Thus when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south they came to be designated Bir or Peru.6 The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulacin de Toledo which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.7 Under Spanish rule the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru which became Republic of Peru after the Peruvian War of Independence. History Main article: History of Peru

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9000 years BCE.8 The oldest known complex society in Peru the Norte Chico civilization flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.9 These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique Chavin Paracas Mochica Nazca Wari and Chim. In the 15th century the Incas emerged as a powerful state which in the span of a century formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.10 Andean societies were based on agriculture using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.11

In 1532 a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa. Ten years later the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru which included most of its South American colonies.12 Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.13 Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.14 However by the 18th century declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.15 In response the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.16 The new laws provoked Tpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts all of which were defeated.17

In the early 19th century while most of South America was swept by wars of independence Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy independence was achieved only after the military campaigns of Jos de San Martn and Simn Bolvar.18 During the early years of the Republic endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.19 National identity was forged during this period as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.20 Between the 1840s and 1860s Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramn Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports.21 However by the 1870s these resources had been squandered the country was heavily indebted and political in-fighting was again on the rise.22 Independence was proclaimed by Jos de San Martn in 1821.

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 18791883 War of the Pacific losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapac in the treaties of Ancn and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Legua.23 The Great Depression caused the downfall of Legua renewed political turmoil and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).24 The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.25 In 1968 the Armed Forces led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.26 In 1975 Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General Francisco Morales Bermdez who paralyzed reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.27 During the 1980s Peru faced a considerable external debt ever-growing inflation a surge in drug trafficking and massive political violence.28 Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (19902000) the country started to recover; however accusations of authoritarianism corruption and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.29 Since the end of the Fujimori regime Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; since 2006 the president is Alan Garca.30 As a result of the Peruvian general election 2011 Ollanta Humala was elected as the new president of Peru; he will assume office on July 28 2011. Government Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima. Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term.31 The President designates the Prime Minister and with his advice the rest of the Council of Ministers.32 There is a unicameral Congress with 120 members elected for a five-year term.33 Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.34 The judiciary is nominally independent35 though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.36 The Peruvian government is directly elected and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.37 General elections held in 2006 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Alan Garca of the Peruvian Aprista Party (52.6% of valid votes) over Ollanta Humala of Union for Peru (47.4%).38 Congress is currently composed of the Peruvian Aprista Party (36 seats) Peruvian Nationalist Party (23 seats) Union for Peru (19 seats) National Unity (15 seats) the Fujimorista Alliance for the Future (13 seats) the Parliamentary Alliance (9 seats) and the Democratic Special Parliamentary Group (5 seats).39 Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries most of which were settled during the 20th century.40 There is still an ongoing dispute with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.41 Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.42 The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.43 Regions Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru Ama zonas Ancash Apurmac Arequipa Ayacucho Caja marca Cusco Hunuco Huanca velica Ica Junn La Libertad Lamba yeque Lima Lima Province Callao Loreto Madre de Dios Moquegua Pasco Piura Puno Tacna Tumbes San Martn Ucayali info Clickable map of the regions of Peru. Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council which serves for a four-year term.44 These governments plan regional development execute public investment projects promote economic activities and manage public property.45 The province of Lima is administered by a city council.46 Regions: Amazonas Ancash Apurmac Arequipa Ayacucho Cajamarca Callao Cusco Huancavelica Hunuco Ica Junn La Libertad Lambayeque Lima Loreto Madre de Dios Moquegua Pasco Piura Puno San Martn Tacna Tumbes Ucayali Province: Lima Geography Main article: Geography of Peru Peru covers 1285216 km2 (496225 sq mi). It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north Brazil to the east Bolivia to the southeast Chile to the south and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean dividing the country into three geographic regions. The costa (coast) to the west is a narrow plain largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country the 6768 m (22205 ft) Huascarn.47 The third region is the selva (jungle) a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.48 Left: Alpamayo a mountain peak in the Huascarn National Park. Right: Man National Park a biosphere reserve depicts the Peruvian rainforest. Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer have a much larger flow and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.49 Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali the Maran the Putumayo the Yavar the Huallaga the Urubamba the Mantaro and the Amazon.50 Peru unlike other equatorial countries does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures low precipitations and high humidity except for its warmer wetter northern reaches.51 In the sierra rain is frequent during summer and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.52 The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures except for its southernmost part which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.53 Because of its varied geography and climate Peru has a high biodiversity with 21462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5855 of them endemic.54 The Peruvian government has established several protected areas for their preservation. Economy Main article: Economy of Peru Peru is a developing country with a market-oriented economy; its 2010 per capita income is estimated by the IMF at US$51951 and it has a high Human Development Index score of 0.723 based on 2010 data.55 Historically the country's economic performance has been tied to exports which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.56 Although they have provided substantial revenue self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.57 According to 2010 data 31.3% of its total population is poor including 9.8% that is extremely poor.58 Left: The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports. Right: Buildings in the financial district of San Isidro Lima. Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 19681975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms which included agrarian reform the expropriation of foreign companies the introduction of an economic planning system and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.59 Despite these results most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls protectionism restrictions on foreign direct investment and most state ownership of companies.60 Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993 except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.61 Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product followed by manufacturing (22.3%) extractive industries (15%) and taxes (9.7%).62 Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability improved terms of trade and rising investment and consumption.63 Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12 2006.64 Peru's main exports are copper gold zinc textiles and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States China Brazil and Chile.65 Demographics Left: Afro-Peruvian association football athlete Jefferson Farfn. Centre: Andean man from Pisac in traditional dress. Right: Former Miss World model Mara Julia Mantilla. Main article: Demographics of Peru Peru is a multiethnic country formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest in the 16th century; according to historian David N. Cook their population decreased from an estimated 59 million in the 1520s to around 600000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.66 Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence there has been a gradual European immigration from England France Germany Italy and Spain.67 Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.68 Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese. With about 29.5 million inhabitants Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.69 Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.70 As of 2007 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.71 Major cities include Lima home to over 8 million people Arequipa Trujillo Chiclayo Piura Iquitos Cusco Chimbote and Huancayo all of which reported more than 250000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.72 Spanish the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007 is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages the most common of which is Quechua spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians respectively.73 In the 2007 census 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic 12.5% as Evangelical 3.3% as of other denominations and 2.9% as non-religious.74 Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).75 Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.76 Culture Main article: Culture of Peru Anonymous Cuzco School painting 18th century Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions77 though it has also been influenced by various African Asian and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery textiles jewelry and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art though modified by native traditions.78 During this period most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.79 Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.80 Since the 1950s Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.81 Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.82 In the early 20th century the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegra83 Jos Mara Arguedas84 and Csar Vallejo.85 During the second half of the century Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa a leading member of the Latin American Boom.86 Ceviche is a lime marinated seafood dish. Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African Arab Italian Chinese and Japanese cooking.87 Common dishes include anticuchos ceviche and pachamanca. Because of the variety of climates within Peru a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking.88 Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and techniques.89 Peruvian music has Andean Spanish and African roots.90 In pre-Hispanic times musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.91 Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.92 African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajn a percussion instrument.93 Peruvian folk dances include marinera tondero and huayno.94 See also v d e Peru topics History Timeline (Ancient cultures  Inca Empire  Spanish conquest  Viceroyalty  War of Independence  Guano Era  War of the Pacific  ColombiaPeru War  EcuadorianPeruvian war  Internal conflict)   Demographic  Economic Geography Cities  Earthquakes  Wildlife  Flora  Mountains  Natural regions  Protected areas  Rivers Government Constitution  Electoral system  Foreign relations  Law  Law enforcement  Military  Nationality law  Regions and provinces Politics Elections   Political parties (Alliance for the Future  APRA  National Unity  Possible Peru  Peruvian Nationalist Party  Popular Action  Union for Peru) Economy Agriculture  Central Bank  Communications  Companies  Currency  Electricity  Stock Exchange  Tourism  Transport  Water supply and sanitation Culture Architecture  Art  Cinema  Cuisine  Demographics  Education  Languages  Literature  Media  Music  Public holidays  Religion  Sport Other topics List of Peruvians  Human rights  International rankings  Llama  Machu Picchu  National symbols Index Portal Notes a b c d e "Peru". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspxsy2008&ey2011&scsm1&ssd1&sortcountry&ds.&br1&c293&sNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp0&a&pr.x35&pr.y6. Retrieved 2011-05-06.  "Human Development Report 2010". United Nations. 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR2010ENTable1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2010.  Quechua name used by government of Peru is Per (see Quechua language version of Peru Parliament website and Quechua language version of Peru Constitution 1) but common Quechua name is Piruw Ral Porras Barrenechea El nombre del Per p. 83. Ral Porras Barrenechea El nombre del Per p. 84. Ral Porras Barrenechea El nombre del Per p. 86. Ral Porras Barrenechea El nombre del Per p. 87. Tom Dillehay et al "The first settlers" p. 20. Jonathan Haas et al "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru" p. 1021. Terence D'Altroy The Incas pp. 23. Enrique Mayer The articulated peasant pp. 4768. Recopilacin de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias vol. II pp. 1213. Peter Bakewell Miners of the Red Mountain p. 181. Margarita Surez Desafos transatlnticos pp. 252253. Kenneth Andrien Crisis and decline pp. 200202. Mark Burkholder From impotence to authority pp. 8387. Scarlett O'Phelan Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru p. 276. Timothy Anna The fall of the royal government in Peru pp. 237238. Charles Walker Smoldering ashes pp. 124125. Paul Gootenberg Between silver and guano p. 12. Paul Gootenberg Imagining development pp. 56. Paul Gootenberg Imagining development p. 9. Ulrich Mcke Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru pp. 193194. Peter Klarn Peru pp. 262276. David Palmer Peru: the authoritarian tradition p. 93. George Philip The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals pp. 163165. Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht "Anatomy of an economic failure" pp. 106107. Peter Klarn Peru pp. 406407. BBC News Fujimori: Decline and fall. Retrieved July 21 2007. The Economist Peru. Retrieved July 18 2007. Constitucin Poltica del Per Article N 112. Constitucin Poltica del Per Article N 122. Constitucin Poltica del Per Article N 90. Constitucin Poltica del Per Articles N 107108. Constitucin Poltica del Per Articles N 146. Jeffrey Clark Building on quicksand. Retrieved July 24 2007. Constitucin Poltica del Per Article N 31. (Spanish) Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales Segunda Eleccin Presidencial 2006. Retrieved December 27 2010. (Spanish) Congreso de la Repblica del Per Grupos Parlamentarios. Retrieved January 5 2008. Ronald Bruce St John The foreign policy of Peru pp. 223224. BBC News PeruChile border row escalates. Retrieved May 16 2007. Ministerio de Defensa Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional p. 90. Ley N 27178 Ley del Servicio Militar Articles N 29 42 and 45. Ley N 27867 Ley Orgnica de Gobiernos Regionales Article N 11. Ley N 27867 Ley Orgnica de Gobiernos Regionales Article N 10. Ley N 27867 Ley Orgnica de Gobiernos Regionales Article N 66. AndesHandbook Huascarn. Retrieved August 12 2007. Instituto de Estudios HistricoMartimos del Per El Per y sus recursos: Atlas geogrfico y econmico p. 16. Instituto de Estudios HistricoMartimos del Per El Per y sus recursos: Atlas geogrfico y econmico p. 31. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Per: Compendio Estadstico 2005 p. 21. Instituto de Estudios HistricoMartimos del Per El Per y sus recursos: Atlas geogrfico y econmico pp. 2425. Instituto de Estudios HistricoMartimos del Per El Per y sus recursos: Atlas geogrfico y econmico pp. 2526. Instituto de Estudios HistricoMartimos del Per El Per y sus recursos: Atlas geogrfico y econmico pp. 2627. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Per: Compendio Estadstico 2005 p. 50. United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report 2010PDFRetrieved November 5 2010. Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram Peru 18901977 p. 4. Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram Peru 18901977 p. 321. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Evolucin de la Pobreza en el Per al 2010 p. 38. Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram Peru 18901977 pp. 318319. John Sheahan Searching for a better society p. 157. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 19512006. Retrieved December 27 2010. 2006 figures. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva Memoria 2006 p. 204. Retrieved December 27 2010. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva Memoria 2006 pp. 15 203. Retrieved December 27 2010. Office of the U.S. Trade Representative United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement April 12 2006. Retrieved December 27 2010. 2006 figures. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva Memoria 2006 pp. 6061. Retrieved December 27 2010. Noble David Cook Demographic collapse: Indian Peru 15201620 p. 114. Mario Vzquez "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru" pp. 7981. Magnus Mrner Race mixture in the history of Latin America p. 131. United Nations World Population ProspectsPDF (2.74 MB) pp. 4448. Retrieved July 29 2007. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Per: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Poblacin 19502050 pp. 3738 40. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Perfil sociodemogrfico del Per p. 13. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Perfil sociodemogrfico del Per p. 24. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Perfil sociodemogrfico del Per p. 111. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Perfil sociodemogrfico del Per p. 132. Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica Perfil sociodemogrfico del Per p. 93. Constitucin Poltica del Per Article N 17. Vctor Andrs Belaunde Peruanidad p. 472. Gauvin Alexander Bailey Art of colonial Latin America pp. 7274. Gauvin Alexander Bailey Art of colonial Latin America p. 263. Edward Lucie-Smith Latin American art of the 20th century pp. 7677 145146. Damin Bayn "Art c. 1920c. 1980" pp. 425428. Gerald Martin "Literature music and the visual arts c. 18201870" pp. 3739. Gerald Martin "Narrative since c. 1920" pp. 151152. Gerald Martin "Narrative since c. 1920" pp. 178179. Jaime Concha "Poetry c. 19201950" pp. 250253. Gerald Martin "Narrative since c. 1920" pp. 186188. Tony Custer The Art of Peruvian Cuisine pp. 1722. Tony Custer The Art of Peruvian Cuisine pp. 2538. Embassy of Peru in the United States The Peruvian Gastronomy. Retrieved December 27 2010. Ral Romero "Andean Peru" p. 385386. Dale Olsen Music of El Dorado pp. 1722. Thomas Turino "Charango" p. 340. Ral Romero "La msica tradicional y popular" pp. 263265. Ral Romero "La msica tradicional y popular" pp. 243245 261263. References Etymology (Spanish) Porras Barrenechea Ral. El nombre del Per. Lima: Talleres Grficos P.L. Villanueva 1968. History Andrien Kenneth. Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985. Anna Timothy. The fall of the royal government in Peru. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1979. Bakewell Peter. Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian labor in Potosi 15451650. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico 1984. BBC News. Fujimori: Decline and fall. November 20 2000. Burkholder Mark. From impotence to authority: the Spanish Crown and the American audiencias 16871808. Columbia: University of Missouri Press 1977. D'Altroy Terence. The Incas. Malden: Blackwell 2002. Dillehay Tom Duccio Bonavia and Peter Kaulicke. "The first settlers". In Helaine Silverman (ed.) Andean archaeology. Malden: Blackwell 2004 pp. 1634. Gootenberg Paul. Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1991. Gootenberg Paul. Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano 18401880. Berkeley: University of California Press 1993. Haas Jonathan Winifred Creamer and Alvaro Ruiz. "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". Nature 432: 10201023 (December 23 2004). Klarn Peter. Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes. New York: Oxford University Press 2000. Mayer Enrique. The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes. Boulder: Westview 2002 Mcke Ulrich. Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 2004. O'Phelan Scarlett. Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru. Cologne: Bhlau 1985. Palmer David. Peru: the authoritarian tradition. New York: Praeger 1980. Philip George. The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals. London: University of London 1978. (Spanish) Recopilacin de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias. Madrid: Cultura Hispnica 1973 Schydlowsky Daniel and Juan Julio Wicht. "Anatomy of an economic failure". In Cynthia McClintock and Abraham Lowenthal (ed.) The Peruvian experiment reconsidered. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1983 pp. 94143. (Spanish) Surez Margarita. Desafos transatlnticos. Lima: FCE/IFEA/PUCP 2001. The Economist. Peru. June 12 2007. Walker Charles. Smoldering ashes: Cuzco and the creation of Republican Peru 17801840. Durham: Duke University Press 1999. Government BBC News. PeruChile border row escalates. November 4 2005. Clark Jeffrey. Building on quicksand: the collapse of the World Bank's judicial reform project in Peru. New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights 2000. (Spanish) Congreso de la Repblica del Per. Grupos Parlamentarios. (Spanish) Constitucin Poltica del Per. December 29 1993. (Spanish) Ley N 27178 Ley del Servicio Militar DOC. September 28 1999. (Spanish) Ministerio de Defensa. Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional. Lima: Ministerio de Defensa 2005 (Spanish) Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales. Segunda eleccin presidencial 2006. St John Ronald Bruce. The foreign policy of Peru. Boulder: Lynne Rienner 1992. Regions (Spanish) Ley N 27867 Ley Orgnica de Gobiernos RegionalesPDF (305 KB). November 16 2002. Geography AndesHandbook. Huascarn. June 2 2002. (Spanish) Instituto de Estudios HistricoMartimos del Per. El Per y sus recursos: Atlas geogrfico y econmico. Lima: Auge 1996. (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica. Per: Compendio Estadstico 2005PDF (8.31 MB). Lima: INEI 2005. Economy (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva. Cuadros Anuales Histricos. (Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva. Memoria 2006. Lima: BCR 2007 (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica. Per: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos 20042008. Lima: INEI 2009. International Monetary Fund. Peru. January 2010. Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement. April 12 2006. Sheahan John. Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950. University Park Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press 1999. Thorp Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. Peru 18901977: growth and policy in an open economy. New York: Columbia University Press 1978. United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report 2009PDF. New York: UNDP 2009. Demographics Cook Noble David. Demographic collapse: Indian Peru 15201620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1981. (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica. Per: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Poblacin 19502050. Lima: INEI 2001. (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica. Perfil sociodemogrfico del Per. Lima: INEI 2008. Mrner Magnus. Race mixture in the history of Latin America. Boston: Little Brown and Co. 1967. United Nations. World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision. HighlightsPDF (2.74 MB). New York: United Nations 2007. Vzquez Mario. "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru". In: Magnus Mrner Race and class in Latin America. New York: Columbia University Press 1970 pp. 7395. Culture Bailey Gauvin Alexander. 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External links Find more about Peru on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Country Profile from BBC News Peru from the Encyclopdia Britannica Peru entry at The World Factbook Peru at UCB Libraries GovPubs Peru at the Open Directory Project PeruLinks web directory Wikimedia Atlas of Peru Peru travel guide from Wikitravel (Spanish) Web portal of the Peruvian Government Related information  Geographic locale v d eCountries and dependencies of South America Sovereign states Argentina  Bolivia  Brazil  Chile  Colombia  Ecuador  France (French Guiana)  Guyana  Netherlands (Bonaire)  Panama  Paraguay  Peru  Suriname  Uruguay  Venezuela Dependencies Netherlands Aruba  Curaao United Kingdom Falkland Islands  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands  International membership v d eLatin Union Member nations Andorra  Angola  Bolivia  Brazil  Cape Verde  Chile  Colombia  Costa Rica  Cte d'Ivoire  Cuba  Dominican Republic  East Timor  Ecuador  El Salvador  France  Guatemala  Guinea-Bissau  Haiti  Honduras  Italy  Mexico  Moldova  Monaco  Mozambique  Nicaragua  Panama  Paraguay  Peru  Philippines  Portugal  Romania  San Marino  So Tom and Prncipe  Senegal  Spain  Uruguay  Venezuela Permanent observers Argentina  Holy See  Sovereign Military Order of Malta Official languages Catalan  French  Italian  Portuguese  Romanian  Spanish v d eUnion of South American Nations Member states Argentina  Bolivia  Brazil  Chile  Colombia  Ecuador  Guyana  Paraguay  Peru  Suriname  Uruguay  Venezuela Summits South American Energy Summit  2004 South American Summit  2010 South American Summit Topics Cusco Declaration  Constitutive Treaty  President Pro Tempore  Secretary General  Bank of the South  South American Parliament  Initiative for Infrastructure Integration of South America  Mercosur  Andean Community v d eAndean Community of Nations Members Bolivia  Colombia  Ecuador  Peru Associate members Argentina  Brazil  Chile  Paraguay  Uruguay  Venezuela Observers Mexico  Panama v d eMercosur  Mercosul  (Southern Common Market) Full Members Argentina  Brazil  Paraguay  Uruguay Becoming Full Members Venezuela Associate members Bolivia  Chile  Colombia  Ecuador  Peru Observers Mexico v d eOrganization of American States (OAS) Antigua and Barbuda  Argentina  Barbados  Brazil  Belize  Bahamas  Bolivia  Chile  Costa Rica  Cuba  Canada  Dominica  Dominican Republic  Ecuador  El Salvador  Grenada  Guatemala  Guyana  Haiti  Honduras  Jamaica  Mexico  Nicaragua  Panama  Paraguay  Peru  St. Lucia  St. Vincent and the Grenadines  St. Kitts and Nevis  Suriname  Trinidad and Tobago  United States  Uruguay  Venezuela v d eNations in the Group of 15 (G-15)      Algeria  Argentina  Brazil  Chile  Egypt  India  Indonesia  Iran  Jamaica  Kenya  Malaysia  Mexico  Nigeria  Peru  Senegal  Sri Lanka  Venezuela  Zimbabwe