This article is about the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. For other uses see Puerto Rico (disambiguation). Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico Flag Coat of arms Motto:  Latin: Joannes Est Nomen Eius Spanish: Juan es su nombre English: John is his name Anthem: La Borinquea Capital (and largest city) San Juan 1827N 666W / 18.45N 66.1W / 18.45; -66.1 Official language(s) Spanish and English1 Ethnic groups  White (mostly Spanish origin) 75.8% Black 12.4% Asian 0.2% Amerindian 0.5% SOR 7.8% other 3.3% (2010)2 Demonym Puerto Rican Government Republic three-branch government  -  President Barack Obama (D)  -  Governor Luis Fortuo (PNP/R)  -  Federal legislative branch United States Congress Sovereignty United States3   -  Cession December 10 1898 from Kingdom of Spain   -  Autonomy November 25 1897 Supreme Authority and Sovereignty was retained by the Kingdom of Spain.4  Area  -  Total 9104 km2 (169th) 3515 sq mi   -  Water (%) 1.6 Population  -  2010 census 37257895   -  Density 430/km2 (21st in the world; 2nd in U.S.) 1113/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2007 estimate  -  Total $77.4 billion (N/A)  -  Per capita $19600 (N/A) GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate  -  Total $96.26  billion6 (N/A)  -  Per capita $242296 (N/A) Gini (2006) 53.578 (th) HDI (n/a) 0.894 (High) (Not ranked) Currency United States dollar (USD) Time zone AST (UTC4)  -  Summer (DST) No DST (UTC4) Drives on the right ISO 3166 code PR Internet TLD .pr Calling code +1 (spec. +1-787 and +1-939)

Puerto Rico ( /prt riko/ or /pwrt riko/)note 1 officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" estao libe asosjao e pweto rikoliterally Associated Free State of Puerto Rico) is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean Sea east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.

Puerto Rico (Spanish for "rich port") comprises an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands the largest of which are Vieques Culebra and Mona. The main island of Puerto Rico is the smallest by land area of the Greater Antilles. It however ranks third in population among that group of four islands which also include Cuba Hispaniola and Jamaica. Due to its location Puerto Rico enjoys a tropical climate and also experiences the Atlantic hurricane season.

Originally populated for centuries by indigenous aboriginal peoples known as Tanos the island was claimed by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage to the Americas. Under Spanish rule the island was colonized and the indigenous population was forced into slavery and nearly wiped out due to European infectious diseases. The remaining population was emancipated by King Carlos I in 1520. Spain possessed Puerto Rico for over 400 years despite attempts at capture of the island by France the Netherlands and England.

The relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States has its origins dating back to the Spanish-American War in which Spain ceded the islands to the U.S. in 1898. Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens and the United States Congress legislates many aspects of Puerto Rican life. However the islanders may not vote in U.S. presidential elections.1112 Since 1947 Puerto Ricans have been able to elect their own governor. The official languages of the country are Spanish and English with Spanish being the primary language. The island's current political status including the possibility of statehood or independence is widely debated in Puerto Rico. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Pre-Columbian era 2.2 Spanish colony 2.3 United States colony 2.4 Commonwealth 3 Government and politics 4 Political status 4.1 Estado Libre Asociado 4.2 Within the United States 4.3 International status 4.4 Recent developments 5 Geography 5.1 Administrative divisions 6 Economy 7 Demographics 7.1 Population and racial makeup 7.2 Immigration 7.3 Language 7.4 Religion 8 Culture 9 Sports 10 Education 11 Transportation 12 Law enforcement 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 External links 16.1 Puerto Rican government 16.2 United States government 16.3 United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico Name

Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen from Borikn its indigenous Tano name which means "Land of the Valiant Lord".131415 The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikn and Borinquen respectively and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as "La Isla del Encanto" which means "The Island of Enchantment" in English. History Main article: History of Puerto Rico Pre-Columbian era

The ancient history of the archipelago known today as "Puerto Rico" before the arrival of Christopher Columbus is not well known. Unlike other larger more advanced indigenous communities in the New World (Aztec Inca) which left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies what is known today about the indigenous population of Puerto Rico comes from scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts. Today there are few and rare cave drawings rock carvings and ancient recreational activity sites that have been identified with some degree of speculation as to who left them behind. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray igo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786 almost three centuries after the first Spaniards arrived on the island.16 Tano Village at the Tibes Ceremonial Center

The first settlers were the Ortoiroid people an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen. An archaeological dig in the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Arcaico (Archaic) man (named "Puerto Ferro Man") dated to around 2000 BC.17 The Igneri a tribe from the region of the Orinoco river in northern South America arrived between 120 and 400 AD. The Arcaicos and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries and perhaps clashed.

Between the 7th and 11th centuries the Tano culture developed on the island and by approximately 1000 AD had become dominant. At the time of Columbus' arrival an estimated 30 to 60 thousand Tano Amerindians led by cacique (chief) Ageyban inhabited the island. They called it Boriken "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord".18 The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting fishing and gathering of indigenous cassava root and fruit. This lasted until Christopher Columbus arrived in 1493.1920 However Puerto Rican culture today exhibits many Tano influences within its music and vocabulary. Spanish colony Further information: Military history of Puerto Rico#Europeans fight over Puerto Rico and Military history of Puerto Rico#Revolt against Spain

When Christopher Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19 1493 the island was inhabited by the Tanos.21 They called the island "Borikn" or in Spanish "Borinquen".22 Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first Spanish settlement Caparra was founded on August 8 1508 by Juan Ponce de Len a lieutenant under Columbus who later became the first governor of the island.23 Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as "Puerto Rico" and "San Juan" became the name of the main trading/shipping port. Garita at fort San Felipe del Morro Soon thereafter the Spanish began to colonize the island. The indigenous population (Tanos) came to be exploited and forced into slavery.12 Within 50 years they were reduced to near extinction by the harsh conditions of work and by European infectious diseases to which they had no natural immunity.24 For example the smallpox outbreak in 15181519 wiped out much of the Island's indigenous population.25 In 1520 King of Spain Carlos I issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Tano population. Essentially the Tano presence while not completely extinct had almost vanished.26 The importation of Sub-Saharan African slaves was introduced to provide the new manual work force for the Spanish colonists and merchants. Following the decline of the Tano population more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands.27 African slavery was primarily restricted to coastal ports and cities while the interior of the island continued to be essentially unexplored and undeveloped. Spanish and other European colonists were concentrated in island's seaports. Puerto Rico soon became an important stronghold and a significant port for Spanish Main colonial expansion. Various forts and walls such as La Fortaleza El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristbal were built to protect the strategic port of San Juan from numerous European invasion attempts. San Juan served as an important port-of-call for ships of all European nations for purposes of taking on water food and other commercial provisions and mercantile exchange. Marker in Puerto Rico which traces the routes taken by the Godspeed Susan Constant and the Discovery and which commemorates their stopping in Puerto Rico from April 6 to 10 1607 on their way to Virginia In 1607 Puerto Rico served as a port for provisions for the English ships the Godspeed Susan Constant and the Discovery who were on their way to establish the Jamestown Settlement the first English settlement in the New World. The Netherlands and England made several attempts to capture Puerto Rico but failed to wrest the long-term occupancy of Spain who held tenaciously onto its increasingly prized island colony of Puerto Rico.2829 During the late 17th and early 18th centuries Spain's colonial emphasis continued to be focused on the more prosperous mainland North Central and South American colonies. This continued distraction on the part of the Spanish Crown left the island of Puerto Rico virtually unexplored undeveloped and uncolonized (with the exception of coastal colonist outposts) until the 19th century. Subsequently with the growth of successful independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies Spain soon began to focus its attention on Puerto Rico as one of the last remaining Spanish maritime colonies. Amidst the attacks Puerto Rican culture began to flourish. In 1786 the first comprehensive history of Puerto RicoHistoria Geogrfica Civil y Poltica de Puerto Rico by Fray Iigo Abbad y Lasierrawas published in Madrid documenting the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus' landing in 1493 until 1783.30 The book also presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity including music clothing personality and nationality. In 1779 citizens of the still-Spanish colony of Puerto Rico fought in the American Revolutionary War under the command of Bernardo de Glvez named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America. Puerto Ricans participated in the capture of Pensacola the capital of the British colony of West Florida and the cities of Baton Rouge St. Louis and Mobile. The Puerto Rican troops under the leadership of Brigadier General Ramn de Castro31 helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola.32 In 1809 in a further move to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular War the Supreme Central Junta based in Cdiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament with equal representation to Mainland Iberian Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands). The first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico Ramon Power y Giralt died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms which were in force from 1810 to 1814 and again from 1820 to 1823 were reversed twice afterwards when the traditional monarchy was restored by Ferdinand VII. Nineteenth century immigration and commercial trade reforms further augmented the island's European population and economy and expanded Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island. With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the century Puerto Rico and Cuba continued to grow in strategic importance to the Spanish Crown. In a very deliberate move to increase its hold on its last two new world colonies the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. This time the decree was printed in three languages: Spanish English and French. Its primary intent was to attract Europeans of non-Spanish origin with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with increase of new loyalist settlers with strong sympathies to Spain. As an incentive to immigrate and colonize free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the two islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.33 It was very successful and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico today still receives Spanish and European immigration. The Original Lares Revolutionary Flag Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "Grito de Lares." It began in the rural town of Lares but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastin. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramn Emeterio Betances considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican independence movement and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Flag flown by Fidel Vlez and his men during the "Intentona de Yauco" revolt Leaders of "El Grito de Lares" who were in exile in New York City joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee founded on December 8 1895 and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897 Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement of the town of Yauco organized another uprising which became known as the "Intentona de Yauco". This was the first time that the current Puerto Rican was unfurled in Puerto Rican soil. The local conservative political factions which believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for (colonial) autonomy opposed such an action. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.34 In 1897 Luis Muoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. In 1898 Puerto Rico's first but short-lived autonomous government was organized as an 'overseas province' of Spain. This bilaterally agreed-upon charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain which held the power to annul any legislative decision and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February Governor-General Manuel Macas inaugurated the new government under the Autonomous Charter. General elections were held in March and the autonomous government began to function on July 17 1898.353637 United States colony Main article: Puerto Rican Campaign First Company of native Puerto Ricans enlisted in the American Colonial Army 1899 In 1890 Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of a canal in the Isthmus.38 This idea was not new since William H. Seward the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba.38 Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department: Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military the ships of war of the United States in war will be like land birds unable to fly far from their own shores. To provide resting places for them where they can coal and repair would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to itself the development of the power of the nation at sea39 Since 1894 the Naval War College had been formulating contingency plans for a war with Spain. By 1896 the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. This prewar planning did not contemplate major territorial acquisitions. Except for one 1895 plan which recommended annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines (later renamed as Isla de la Juventud) a recommendation dropped in later planning plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain's forces in and around Cuba. 40 However Jorge Rodriguez Beruf recognized as a foremost researcher on United States militarism in Puerto Rico41 writes that not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in sugar a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked.42 On July 25 1898 during the Spanish-American War Puerto Rico was invaded by the United States with a landing at Gunica. As an outcome of the war Spain ceded Puerto Rico along with the Philippines and Guam that were under Spanish sovereignty to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba but did not cede it to the U.S.43 The United States and Puerto Rico thus began a long-standing relationship. Puerto Rico began the 20th century under the military rule of the U.S. with officials including the governor appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government including a popularly elected House of Representatives also a judicial system following the American legal system that includes both state courts and federal courts establishing a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court; and a non-voting member of Congress by the title of "Resident Commissioner". In addition this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable" to Puerto Rico specifying specific exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.44 The act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable" including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature.4445 During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906 President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.44 In 1917 "Puerto Ricans were collectively made U.S. citizens"46 via the Jones Act. The same Act also provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly a bill of rights and authorized the election of a Resident Commissioner to a four-year term. As a result of their new U.S. citizenship many Puerto Ricans were drafted into World War I and all subsequent wars with U.S. participation in which a national military draft was in effect. Natural disasters including a major earthquake a tsunami and several hurricanes and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule.47 Some political leaders like Pedro Albizu Campos who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party demanded change. On March 21 1937 a march was organized in the southern city of Ponce by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. This march turned bloody when the Insular Police "a force somewhat resembling the National Guard which answered to the U.S.-appointed governor"48 opened fire upon unarmed48 and defenseless49 cadets and bystanders alike4849 as reported by a U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio and the "Hays Commission" led by Arthur Garfield Hays. Nineteen were killed and over 200 were badly wounded49 many in their backs while running away.4950 An American Civil Liberties Union report declared it a massacre49 and it has since been known as the Ponce Massacre. On April 2 1943 U.S. Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated.44 The internal governance changed during the latter years of the RooseveltTruman administrations as a form of compromise led by Luis Muoz Marn and others. It culminated with the appointment by President Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor Jess T. Piero. On June 11 1948 Piero signed the "Ley de la Mordaza" (Gag Law) or Law 53 as it was officially known passed by the Puerto Rican legislature which made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican Flag sing patriotic songs talk of independence and to fight for the liberation of the island. It resembled the anti-communist Smith Law passed in the United States.51 Commonwealth In 1947 the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to elect democratically their own governor. Luis Muoz Marn was elected during the 1948 general elections becoming the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico. In 1950 the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81-600) which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution.52 This act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact". It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force were then entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act.5354 External videos Newsreel scenes in Spanish of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s here On October 30 1950 Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a 3-day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico. The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt known as the Jayuya Uprising the United States declared martial law and attacked Jayuya with infantry artillery and bombers. The Utuado Uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre. On November 1 1950 Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S Truman. Torresola was killed during the attack but Collazo was captured. Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison being released in 1979. Don Pedro Albizu Campos also served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta Georgia for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.55 The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6 1952 ratified by the U.S. Congress approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year and proclaimed by Gov. Muoz Marn on July 25 1952 on the anniversary of the July 25 1898 landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish-American War until then an annual Puerto Rico holiday. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State") officially translated into English as Commonwealth for its body politic.5657 The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life including citizenship currency postal service foreign affairs military defense communications labor relations the environment commerce finance health and welfare and many others.5859 During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization due in large part to Operacin Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap") an offshoot of FDR's New Deal which aimed to transform Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based. Presently Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.60 Yet it still struggles to define its political status. Three plebiscites have been held in recent decades to resolve the political status but no changes have been attained. Support for the pro-statehood party Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP) and the pro-commonwealth party Partido Popular Democrtico (PPD) remains about equal. The only registered pro-independence party the Partido Independentista Puertorriqueo (PIP) usually receives 35% of the electoral votes.citation needed Government and politics Main articles: Government of Puerto Rico and Politics of Puerto Rico See also: Municipalities of Puerto Rico List of political parties in Puerto Rico and Political party strength in Puerto Rico The Capitol of Puerto Rico home of the Legislative Assembly in Puerto Rico Puerto Rico has a republican form of government61 subject to U.S. jurisdiction and sovereignty.3 Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution.62 Puerto Rico's head of state is the President of the United States. The government of Puerto Rico based on the formal republican system is composed of three branches: executive legislative and judicial. The executive branch is headed by the Governor currently Luis Fortuo. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral Legislative Assembly made up of a Senate upper chamber and a House of Representatives lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House. The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico. The legal system is a mix of the civil law and the common law systems. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate formally called a Resident Commissioner (currently Pedro Pierluisi). Current legislation has returned the Commissioner's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole but not on matters where the vote would represent a decisive participation.63 Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico.6465 While residing in Puerto Rico Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections. As Puerto Rico is not an independent country it hosts no embassies. It is host however to consulates from 41 countries mainly from the Americas and Europe.66 Most consulates are located in San Juan. As an unincorporated territory of the United States Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality but part of the municipality of Mayagez.67 Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town") was founded first in 1521 San Germn in 1570 Coamo in 1579 Arecibo in 1614 Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971.68 From 1952 to 2007 Puerto Rico had three political parties which stood for three distinct future political scenarios. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain the island's "association" status as a commonwealth improved commonwealth and/or seek a true free sovereign-association status or Free Associated Republic and has won a plurality vote in referendums on the island's status held over six decades after the island was invaded by the U.S. The New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks statehood. The Puerto Rican Independence Party seeks independence. In 2007 a fourth party the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR) was registered. The PPR claims that it seeks to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. It ceased to remain a registered political party when it failed to obtain the requisite number of votes in the 2008 general election to remain so. Non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party the Socialist Workers Movement the Hostosian National Independence Movement and others. Political status Main article: Political status of Puerto Rico The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico the United States Congress and the United Nations. Specifically the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory become a U.S. state or become an independent country.6970 Estado Libre Asociado In 1950 the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference "yes" or "no" on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth" that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known. The purpose of Congress in the 1950 and 1952 legislation was to accord to Puerto Rico the degree of autonomy and independence normally associated with a State of the Union.71 On February 4 1952 the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word Commonwealth meaning a "politically organized community" or "state" which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico" in its constitution as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado" (ELA). Literally translated into English the phrase Estado Libre Asociado means "Associated Free State." The preamble of the Commonwealth constitution in part reads: We the people of Puerto Rico in order to organise ourselves politically on a fully democratic basis ...do ordain and establish this Constitution for the commonwealth which in the exercise of our natural rights we now create within our union with the United States of America. In so doing we declare: ... We consider as determining factors in our life our citizenship of the United States of America and our aspiration continually to enrich our democratic heritage in the individual and collective enjoyment of its rights and privileges; our loyalty to the principles of the Federal Constitution;... While the approval of the commonwealth constitution by the people of Puerto Rico the U.S. Congress and the U.S. President as a federal law marked a historic change in the civil government for the islands neither it nor the public laws approved by Congress in 1950 and 1952 revoked statutory provisions concerning the legal relationship of Puerto Rico to the United States. This relationship is based on the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The statutory provisions that set forth the conditions of the relationship are commonly referred to as the Federal Relations Act (FRA).72 Inclusive by Resolution number 34 approved by the Constitutional Convention and ratified in the Referendum held on November 4 1952 the following new sentence was added to section 3 of article VII of the commonwealth constitution: "Any amendment or revision of this constitution shall be consistent with the resolution enacted by the applicable provisions of the Constitution of the United States with the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and with Public Law 600 Eighty-first Congress adopted in the nature of a compact".73 The provisions of the Federal Relations Act as codified on the U.S. Code Title 48 Chapter 4 shall apply to the island of Puerto Rico and to the adjacent islands belonging to the United States and waters of those islands; and the name Puerto Rico as used in the chapter shall be held to include not only the island of that name but all the adjacent islands as aforesaid.74 While specified subsections of the FRA were "adopted in the nature of a compact" other provisions by comparison are excluded from the compact reference. Matters still subject to congressional authority and established pursuant to legislation include the citizenship status of residents tax provisions civil rights trade and commerce public finance the administration of public lands controlled by the federal government the application of federal law over navigable waters congressional representation and the judicial process among others.7576 In 1967 Puerto Rico's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth statehood and independence). Claiming "foul play" and dubbing the process as illegitimate and contrary to norms of international law regarding decolonization procedures the plebiscite was boycotted by the major pro-statehood and pro-independence parties of the time the Republican Party of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rican Independence Party respectively. The Commonwealth option represented by the PDP won with a majority of 60.4% of the votes. After the plebiscite efforts in the 1970s 1980s 1990s and 2000s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in U.S. Congressional committees. In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results) the current political status failed to receive majority support (receiving 48.6% in 1993 and only 0.3% in 1998) while the "none of the above" option which was the Popular Democratic Party sponsored choice was the winning option with 50.3% of the votes. Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives and Commonwealth advocates among others reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above".777879 Within the United States Puerto Rico is an "unincorporated territory" of the United States which according to the U.S. Supreme Court's Insular Cases is "a territory appurtenant and belonging to the United States but not a part of the United States."80 However President Obama's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status issued a report on March 11 2011.81 which suggests that the task force already considers Puerto Rico a part of the United States notwithstanding the 111 year-old Downes case. At p. 28 the Report suggests a two-plebiscite process including a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States (either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite a second vote would be taken between Statehood and Commonweath." The Report language suggests that the Obama Administration believes that Puerto Rico is a part of the United States and that a vote for Commonwealth would allow Puerto Rico to "continue" in that relationship. The Report clarifies consistent with the legal conclusions reached by prior Task Force reports that the proposals for enhanced Commonwealth remains constitutionally problematic and that under the Commonwealth option Puerto Rico would remain as it is today subject to the Territory Clause of the U.S. Constitution.81 Constitutionally Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress' plenary powers under the territorial clause of Article IV sec. 3 of the U.S. Constitution.82 U.S. federal law applies to Puerto Rico even though Puerto Rico is not a state of the American Union and has no voting representative in the U.S. Congress. Because of the establishment of the Federal Relations Act of 1950 all federal laws that are "not locally inapplicable" are automatically the law of the land in Puerto Rico.5983 Following the 1950 and 1952 legislation only two district court decisions have held that a particular federal law which does not specifically exclude or treat Puerto Rico differently is inapplicable to Puerto Rico. The more recent decision was vacated on appeal.84 Efrn Rivera Ramos Dean and Professor of Law at the University of Puerto Rico School of Law85 clarified the meaning of plenary powers explaining "The government of a state derives its powers from the people of the state whereas the government of a territory owes its existence wholly to the United States. The Court thus seems to equate plenary power to exclusive power. The U.S. government could exert over the territory power that it could not exercise over the states." Ramos quotes Justice Harlan writing in Grafton v. United States 206 U.S. 333 (1907) "The jurisdiction and authority of the United States over that territory referring to the Philippines and its inhabitants for all legitimate purposes of government is paramount". Ramos then goes on to argue "This power however is not absolute for it is restrained by some then-undefined fundamental rights possessed by anyone subject to the authority of the U.S. government."86 Since 1917 people born in Puerto Rico have been given U.S. citizenship. United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico whether born there or not are not residents of a state or the District of Columbia and therefore do not qualify to vote personally or through an absentee ballot in federal elections. See also: "Voting rights in Puerto Rico". Under the Constitution of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico designates itself with the term Commonwealth and Puerto Ricans have a degree of administrative autonomy similar to citizens of a U.S. state and like the States it has a republican form of government organized pursuant to a constitution adopted by its people and a bill of rights. The U.S. congressionally approved Constitution goes into effect in 1952. In addition like the States Puerto Rico lacks the full sovereignty of an independent nation for example the power to manage its external relations with other nations which was retained by the Federal Government. Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens" in 1917 as a result of the Jones-Shafroth Act.87 The act was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2 1917. U.S. Federal law Clarification of federal law codified on U.S. Code Title 8 as 8 U.S.C.  1402 approved by President Harry S. Truman on June 27 1952 declared all persons born in Puerto Rico on or after January 13 1941 to be U.S. citizens at birth and all persons born in Puerto Rico between April 11 1899 and January 12 1941 and meeting certain other technical requirements and not citizens of the United States under any other Act are declared to be citizens of the U.S. as of January 13 1941.88 In addition an April 2000 report by the Congressional Research Service asserts that citizens born in Puerto Rico are legally defined as natural born citizens and are therefore eligible to be elected President provided they meet qualifications of age and 14 years residence within the United States. According to this report residence in Puerto Rico and U.S. territories and possessions does not qualify as residence within the United States for these purposes.89 Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state the United States Constitution does not fully enfranchise US citizens residing in Puerto Rico.6288 Only the "fundamental rights" under the federal constitution apply to Puerto Rico including the Privileges and Immunities Clause (U.S. Constitution Article IV Section 2 Clause 1 also known as the Comity Clause) that prevents a state from treating citizens of other states in a discriminatory manner with regard to basic civil rights. The clause also embraces a right to travel so that a citizen of one state can have privileges and immunities in any other state; this constitutional clause regarding the rights privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States was expressly extended to Puerto Rico by the U.S. Congress through the federal law codified on the Title 48 of the United States Code as 48 U.S.C.  737 and signed by President Truman in 1947.629091 The Supreme Court has indicated that once the Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the Courts) its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they not this Court say what the law is..92 Other fundamental rights such as the Eleventh Amendment and the Dormant Commerce Clause were expressly extended by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit and the First Amendment Fourth Amendment Fifth Amendment the due process clause and the equal protection guarantee of the Fourteenth Amendment were expressly extended to Puerto Rico by the U.S. Supreme court.93949596 In a brief concurrence in the judgment of Torres v. Puerto Rico 442 U.S. 465 (1979) Supreme Court Justice Brennan argued that any implicit limits from the Insular Cases on the basic rights granted by the Constitution (including especially the Bill of Rights) were anachronistic in the 1970s.91979899100 Article Three of the United States Constitution establishes the judicial branch of the federal government. This article was expressly extended to the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico by the U.S. Congress through Federal Law 89-571 80 Stat. 764 signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966. After that date judges appointed to the Puerto Rico federal district court have been Article III judges appointed under the Constitution of the United States. In addition in 1984 one of the judges of the federal district court Chief Judge Juan R. Torruella a native of the island was appointed to serve in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit with jurisdiction over Puerto Rico Massachusetts Rhode Island Maine and New Hampshire.101 Federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico just as in any state such as the U.S. Customs and Border Protection U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement U.S. Attorney Federal Bureau of Investigation Homeland Security National Labor Relations Board Federal Emergency Management Agency Transportation Safety Authority Environmental Protection Agency Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Internal Revenue Service and Social Security Administration. The island's economic commercial and banking systems are integrated to those of the United States.102 President George H. W. Bush issued a November 30 1992 memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments agencies and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations. Puerto Rico does participate in the internal political process of both the Democratic and Republican parties in the U.S. accorded equal-proportional representation in both parties and delegates from the islands vote in each party's national convention. The U.S. Government classifies Puerto Rico as an independent taxation authority by Federal Law codified on the Title 48 of the United States Code as 48 U.S.C.  734. Puerto Rico residents are required to pay U.S. federal taxes import/export taxes103 federal commodity taxes104 social security taxes etc. Individuals working with the Federal Government pay federal income taxes while the rest of the residents are required to pay federal payroll taxes (Social Security105 and Medicare)106 as well as Commonwealth of Puerto Rico income taxes. All federal employees107 plus those who do business with the federal government108 in addition to Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S.109 and some others110 also pay federal income taxes. In 2009 Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the US Treasury.111 Because residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security they are eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement but are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and the island actually receives less than 15% of the Medicaid funding it would normally receive if it were a U.S. state.112 Yet Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico even though the latter paid fully into the system.113 Since 1961 several Puerto Ricans have been appointed by the President upon the advice and consent of the Senate to serve as United States Ambassadors to Venezuela Spain Costa Rica Chile the Dominican Republic and the Republics of Mauritius and Seychelles. A Puerto Rican was also appointed by President Obama as ambassador to El Salvador. Pending the advice and consent of the United States Senate the President issued a recess appointment so that the Ambassador could assume her post.114 As embassies fall within the Department of State ambassadors answer to the Secretary of State.101 Puerto Ricans may enlist in the U.S. military. Since 1917 Puerto Ricans have been included in the compulsory draft whenever it has been in effect and more than 400000 Puerto Ricans have served in the United States Armed Forces. Puerto Ricans have participated in all U.S. wars since 1898 most notably World War I World War II the Korean and Vietnam wars as well as the current Middle Eastern conflicts. Several Puerto Ricans became notable commanders five have been awarded the Medal of Honor the highest military decoration in the United States and several Puerto Ricans have attained the rank of General or Admiral which requires a Presidential nomination and Senate confirmation as is the case of judges and ambassadors.115 In World War II116 the Korean War117 and the Vietnam War118 Puerto Ricans were the most decorated Hispanic soldiers and in some cases were the first to die in combat.119120 International status On November 27 1953 shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748 removing Puerto Rico's classification as a non-self-governing territory under article 73(e) of the Charter from UN. But the General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-selfgoverning status of Puerto Rico.121122 According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico's Political Status in its December 21 2007 report the U.S. in its written submission to the UN in 1953 never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent.123 It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause124 of the U.S. Constitution.123 In 1993 the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice.76 In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated "Puerto Rico's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government under Resolution 1541" (the three established forms of full self-government being stated in the report as (1) national independence (2) free association based on separate sovereignty or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated territory and does not have the status of 'free association' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice" that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time for a legitimate Federal purpose.125126 The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases. Recent developments In 2005 and 2007 two reports were issued by the U.S. President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status.44123 Both reports conclude that Puerto Rico continues to be a territory of U.S. under the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress.123 Reactions from Puerto Rico's two major political parties were mixed. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) challenged the task force's reportcitation needed and committed to validating the current status in all international forums including the United Nations. It also rejectedcitation needed any "colonial or territorial status" as a status option and vowed to keep working for the enhanced Commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998 which included sovereignty an association based on "respect and dignity between both nations" and common citizenship.127 The New Progressive Party (PNP) supportedcitation needed the White House Report's conclusions and supported bills to provide for a democratic referendum process among Puerto Rico voters. According to a CRS report the recent activity regarding Puerto Rico's political status in Congress and on the island suggests that action may be taken in the 111th Congress. The reports issued in 2007 and 2005 by the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status may be the basis for reconsideration of the existing commonwealth status as legislative developments during the 109th and 110th Congresses suggested. Agreement on the process to be used in considering the status proposals has been as elusive as agreement on the end result. Congress would have a determinative role in any resolution of the issue. The four options that appear to be most frequently discussed include continuation of the commonwealth modification of the current commonwealth agreement statehood or independence. If independence or separate national sovereignty were selected Puerto Rican officials might seek to negotiate a compact of free association with the United States.128 On June 15 2009 the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence.129 On April 29 2010 the U.S. Congress voted 223169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto Rico's self determination allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of commonwealth political status or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans vote to continue to have their present form of political status the Government of Puerto Rico is authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite are certified; if Puerto Ricans vote to have a different political status a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a U.S. state an independent country or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.130 During the House debate a fourth option to retain its present form of commonwealth (status quo) political status was added as an option in the second plebiscite.130131 Immediately following U.S. House of the U.S. Congress passage H.R. 2499 was sent to the U.S. Senate where it was given two formal readings and referred to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. A Senate hearing was held on May 19 2010 for the purpose of gathering testimony on the bill. Among those offering testimony were Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico Pedro Pierluisi; Governor of Puerto Rico Luis Fortuo; President of the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico Hctor Ferrer; and President of the Puerto Rican Independence Party Rubn Berros.132 The U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee Chair Senator Jeff Bingaman (D-NM) and Ranking Member Senator Lisa Murkowski (R-AK) formally requested the White House to share President's position regarding The Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010 (H.R. 2499) and constitutionally-viable status alternatives in a letter dated May 27 following a hearing on the legislation. The Senators requested the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status clarify the White House position on the issue. According to the Senate Energy & Natural Resources Committee leadership the four options are the continuation of the current commonwealth status subject to the territorial clause (under Article IV of the Constitution) statehood independence and free association. Efforts to address Puerto Ricos political status have been hampered by a failure of the federal government to clearly define these status options and that failure has undermined Puerto Ricos efforts to accurately assess the views of the voters the letter stated. In recent years however a consistent administration and congressional view has emerged that only four status options are available for Puerto Ricos future relations with the United States. Bingaman and Murkowski wrote that this analysis of the status options favored by the principal political parties in Puerto Rico concludes that a fifth option New Commonwealth is incompatible with the Constitution and basic laws of the United States in several respects according to the analysis and conclusion of the U.S. Department of Justice under the administrations of Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush.133134135 Absent a White House response to the Senates request the Senate did not act on H.R. 2499. The latest Task Force report was released on March 11 2011; The Task Force recommends related to the status that all relevant partiesthe President Congress and the leadership and people of Puerto Ricowork to ensure that Puerto Ricans are able to express their will about status options and have that will acted upon by the end of 2012 or soon thereafter. If efforts on the Island do not provide a clear result in the short term the President should support and Congress should enact self-executing legislation that specifies in advance for the people of Puerto Rico a set of acceptable status options that the United States is politically committed to fulfilling. This legislation should commit the United States to honor the choice of Puerto Rico (provided it is one of the status options specified in the legislation) and should specify the means by which such a choice would be made. The Task Force recommends that by the end of 2012 the Administration develop draft and work with Congress to enact the proposed legislation. The Task Force believes that the time to act is now and recommends that if there is no decisive result by a plebiscite this summer the Administration Congress and stakeholders in Puerto Rico work as rapidly as possible to develop the legislation contemplated by the Task Force. The report indicates that the long-term economic well-being of Puerto Rico would be dramatically improved by an early decision on the status question. The Task Force therefore recommends that by the end of 2012 the Administration develop draft and work with Congress to enact the proposed legislation.81 Geography Main article: Geography of Puerto Rico See also: Geology of Puerto Rico and Fauna of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands including Vieques Culebra Mona Desecheo and Caja de Muertos. Of these last five only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are also many other even smaller islands including Monito and "La Isleta de San Juan" which includes Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra and is connected to the main island by bridges. Map of Puerto Rico The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13790 square kilometers (5320 sq mi) of which 8870 km2 (3420 sq mi) is land and 4921 km2 (1900 sq mi) is water.136 The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km (110 mi) and the maximum width from north to south is 65 km (40 mi).137 Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80% of the size of Jamaica138 just over 18% of the size of Hispaniola and 8% of the size of Cuba the largest of the Greater Antilles.139 Puerto Rico is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico Cerro de Punta 1339 meters (4393 ft)136 is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest with an elevation of 1065 m (3494 ft).140 Puerto Rico has 17 lakes all man-made and more than 50 rivers most originating in the Cordillera Central.141 Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions. Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks.142 Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events along with landslides represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11 1918 and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale.143 It originated off the coast of Aguadilla and was accompanied by a tsunami. Corcho Beach in Vieques The Puerto Rico Trench the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic is located about 115 km (71 mi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates.144 It is 280 km (170 mi) long.145 At its deepest point named the Milwaukee Deep it is almost 8400 m (27600 ft) deep or about 5.2 miles.144 The island experiences frequent tremors and is an area of concern for major earthquakes.citation needed Located in the tropics Puerto Rico has an average temperature of 82.4 F (28 C) throughout the year. Temperatures do not change drastically throughout the seasons. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than the rest of the island. The Hurricane season spans from June to November. The all-time low in Puerto Rico has been 39 F (4 C) registered in Aibonito.146 2012 El Yunque National Forest U.S. Mint Designs to the America the Beautiful Quarters Program Species endemic to the archipelago are 239 plants 16 birds and 39 amphibians/reptiles recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island.147 The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coqu a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call and from which it gets its name. Most Coqu species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species including the critically endangered Puerto Rican Amazon. Across the island in the southwest the 40 km2 (15 sq mi) of dry land at the Gunica Commonwealth Forest Reserve148 contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico. Administrative divisions Main article: Municipalities of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico's municipalities As an unincorporated territory of the United States Puerto Rico does not have any first order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. Government but there are 78 municipalities at the secondary level which function as counties. Municipalities are further subdivided into barrios and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for four year terms. The first municipality (previously called "town") of Puerto Rico San Juan was founded in 1521. In the 16th century two more municipalities were established San Germn (1570) and Coamo (1579). Three more municipalities were established in the 17th century. These were Arecibo (1614) Aguada (1692) and Ponce (1692). The 18th and 19th century saw an increase in settlement in Puerto Rico with 30 municipalities being established in the 18th century and 34 more in the 19th century. Only six municipalities were founded in the 20th century with the last Florida being founded in 1971.68 Economy Main article: Economy of Puerto Rico Pharmaceutical companies around Puerto Rico Milla de Oro is a major financial center in Puerto Rico. View of the La Concha one of the newly refurbished hotels from the beach in Condado In the early 20th century the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico's economy was agriculture and its main crop was sugar. In the late 1940s a series of projects codenamed Operation Bootstrap encouraged a significant shift to manufacture via tax exemptions. Manufacturing quickly replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Puerto Rico is classified as a "high income country" by the World Bank.149150 Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the Great Depression because of external investment in capital-intensive industries such as petrochemicals pharmaceuticals and technology. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions. Also starting around 1950 there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the Continental United States particularly New York City in search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New York displayed an average yearly migration of 1800 for the years 19301940 31000 for 19461950 45000 for 19511960 and a peak of 75000 in 1953.151 As of 2003 the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico.152 On May 1 2006 the Puerto Rican government faced significant shortages in cash flows which forced the closure of the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies. All 1536 public schools closed and 95762 people were furloughed in the first-ever partial shutdown of the government in the island's history.153 On May 10 2006 the budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return to work. On November 15 2006 a 5.5% sales tax was implemented. Municipalities are required by law to apply a municipal sales tax of 1.5% bringing the total sales tax to 7%.154 Tourism is an important component of Puerto Rican economy supplying an approximate $1.8 billion. In 1999 an estimated 5 million tourists visited the island most from the U.S. Nearly a third of these are cruise ship passengers. A steady increase in hotel registrations since 1998 and the construction of new hotels and new tourism projects such as the Puerto Rico Convention Center indicate the current strength of the tourism industry. Puerto Ricans had median household income of $18314 for 2009 which makes Puerto Rico's economy comparable to the independent nations of Latvia or Poland.155 By comparison the poorest state of the Union Mississippi had median household income of $36646 in 2009.155 Nevertheless Puerto Rico's GDP per capita compares favorably to other independent Caribbean nations and is one of the highest in North America.156 Puerto Rico's public debt has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy reaching $46.7 billion in 2008.157 In January 2009 Luis Fortuo enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government's $3.3 billion deficit158 including laying off 12505159 government employees. Puerto Rico's unemployment rate was 15.9 percent in January 2010.160 Some analysts said they expect the government's layoffs to propel that rate to 17 percent.161 In November 2010 Gov. Fortuo proposed a tax reform plan that would be implemented in a six-year period retroactive to January 1 2010. The first phase applicable to year 2010 reduces taxes to all individual taxpayers by 715%. By year 2016 average relief for individual taxpayers will represent a 50% tax cut and a 30% cut for corporate taxpayers whose tax rate will be lowered from 41 to 30%.162 Businesses and consumers in Puerto Rico are subjected to economic discrimination by many U.S. and multinational companies that limit access to products or offer them at higher prices to businesses and consumers located in Puerto Rico. For example Apple does not include K-12 or post-secondary educational institutions in their national pricing program offering discounts to teachers and students and special pricing for institutional purchases.163 Likewise Minneapolis-based Best Buy does not allow residents of Puerto Rico to purchase goods on their website which may be purchased from the 50 states Guam and the United States Virgin Islands but invites potential customers to skirt their own rules: "Now you can order items online and ship them to a U.S. address* or pick them up at a U.S. store. International orders may be shipped to street addresses in the U.S. U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam along with AFO/FPO mailing address."164 At the same time the latest report by the President Task Force on Puerto Rico Status recognizes that the status question and the economy are intimately linked. Many participants in the forums conducted by the Task Force argued that uncertainty about status is holding Puerto Rico back in economic areas. And although there are a number of economic actions that should be taken immediately or in the short term regardless of the ultimate outcome of the status question identifying the most effective means of assisting the Puerto Rican economy depends on resolving the ultimate question of status. In short the long-term economic well-being of Puerto Rico would be dramatically improved by an early decision on the status question.81 Demographics Main article: Demographics of Puerto Rico The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by Amerindian settlement European colonization slavery economic migration and Puerto Rico's status as unincorporated territory of the United States. Population and racial makeup Royal Decree of Graces 1815 Continuous European immigration during the 19th century helped the population grow from 155000 in 1800 to almost a million at the close of the century. A census conducted by royal decree on September 30 1858 gives the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at this time: 341015 as Free colored; 300430 identified as Whites; and 41736 were slaves.165 During the 19th century hundreds of Corsican French Lebanese Chinese and Portuguese families arrived in Puerto Rico along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from Catalonia Asturias Galicia the Balearic Islands Andalusia and the Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America. Other settlers included Irish Scots Germans Italians and thousands others who were granted land by Spain during the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815") which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island provided they agreed to pay taxes and continue to support the Catholic Church. Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or color. However the 2000 United States Census included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census most Puerto Ricans self-identified as White and few declared themselves to be Black or some other race.166 A recent study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that around 52.6% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.167168 Immigration Population density Census 2000 Recently Puerto Rico has become the permanent home of over 100000 legal residents who immigrated from not only the Dominican Republic but from other Latin American countries: Cuba Colombia and Venezuela as well as from surrounding Caribbean Islands: Haiti Barbados and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Emigration has been a major part of Puerto Rico's recent history. Starting soon after World War II poverty cheap airfare and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States particularly to New York New Jersey Massachusetts and Florida. Although this trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined Puerto Ricans continue their "circular migration" pattern. Language Main article: Puerto Rican Spanish The official languages are Spanish and English with Spanish being the primary language. English is taught as a second language in public and private schools from elementary levels to high school and at the university level. The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax which differentiate it from the Spanish spoken in other Spanish-speaking countries. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries the most profound regional impact on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from the Spanish spoken in present day Canary Islands. As a result of the natural inclusion of indigenous vocabulary in all New World former European colonies (English French Spanish Dutch etc.) the Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional "Taino" words which are typically in the context of vegetation natural phenomenon or primitive musical instruments. Similarly African-attributed words exist within the contexts of foods music or dances developed in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of former Sub-Saharan slaves. Since the acquisition of the Island by the US from Spain in 1898 the linguistic impression of American English increasingly leaves its linguistic impact on the island in all aspects of social commercial and educational exchange.169not in citation given According to a study by the University of Puerto Rico nine of every ten Puerto Ricans residing in Puerto Rico do not speak English at the advanced level170. More recently according to the 20052009 Population and Housing Narrative Profile for Puerto Rico among people at least five years old living in Puerto Rico in 20052009 95 percent spoke a language other than English at home. Of those speaking a language other than English at home 100 percent spoke Spanish and less than 0.5 percent spoke some other language; 85 percent reported that they did not speak English "very well."171 Religion Front entrance of the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista: There are many religious beliefs represented in the island The Roman Catholic Church has historically been the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas including the first diocese of Puerto Rico were authorized by Pope Julius II in 1511.172 One Pope John Paul II visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church most of which are located at the town center or "plaza". Protestantism which was suppressed under the Spanish regime has spread under American rule making modern Puerto Rico interconfessional. The first Protestant church Holy Trinity Church in Ponce was established by the Anglican diocese of Antigua in 1872.173 In 1872 German settlers in Ponce founded the Iglesia Santisima Trinidad an Anglican Church the first non-Roman Catholic Church in the Spanish Colonies.174 In 1940 Juanita Garcia Peraza founded the Mita Religion the first Protestant religion of Puerto Rican origin.175 Tano religious practices have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Various African religious practices have been present since the arrival of African slaves. In particular the Yoruba beliefs of Santeria and/or If and the Kongo-derived Palo Mayombe find adherence among a few individuals who practice some form of African traditional religion. In 1952 a handful of American Jews established the island's first synagogue in the former residence of William Korber a wealthy Puerto Rican of German descent which was designed and built by Czech architect Antonin Nechodoma.176177 The synagogue called Sha'are Zedeck hired its first rabbi in 1954.178 Puerto Rico is also home to the largest and richest Jewish community in the Caribbean numbering 3000. Puerto Rico is the only Caribbean island in which the Conservative Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements are represented.178179 In 2007 there were about 5000 Muslims in Puerto Rico representing about 0.10% of the population180181 There were eight Islamic mosques spread throughout the island with most Muslims living in Rio Piedras.182183 The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism has a branch in Puerto Rico.184 Iglesia Santsima Trinidad of Ponce Islamic Center at Ponce Inside Sha'are Zedeck in San Juan Culture Main article: Culture of Puerto Rico See also: Cuisine of Puerto Rico and Music of Puerto Rico Kapok tree (Ceiba) the national tree of Puerto Rico Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents including African (from the slaves) Tano (Amerindians) Spanish and more recently North American. From the Spanish Puerto Rico received the Spanish language the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English language influence the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12 1903 University of Puerto Rico was officially founded branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial" a smaller organism that was founded in Fajardo three years before. Much of the Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music. Like the country as a whole Puerto Rican music has been developed by mixing other cultures with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music the influences of African and Spanish traditions were most noticeable. However the cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences that have reached Puerto Rico.185186 The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the Reinita mora or Puerto Rican Spindalis (a type of bird) the Flor de Maga (a type of flower) and the Ceiba or Kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coqu a small frog genus. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the "jbaro" the "countryman" and the carite. Sports Main article: Sports in Puerto Rico Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico however San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. The Puerto Rico national baseball team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951) four silver and four bronze medals and the Caribbean Series winning fourteen times. Famous Puerto Rican baseball players include Roberto Clemente and Orlando Cepeda enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973 and 1999 respectively.187188 Boxing basketball and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gmez and McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include Jos Pedraza who holds a silver medal as well as three boxers that finished in third place Jos Luis Velln Nelson Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and its the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto Flix Trinidad Wilfred Bentez and Gmez among others. The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games. August 8 2004 became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 9273 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens Greece.189 Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top-level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930. Miscellaneous practices of this sport have experienced some success including the "Puerto Rico All Stars" team which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.190 Organized Streetball has gathered some exposition with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball" competing against established organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1's Mixtape Tour Team. Consequently practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams including Orlando "El Gato" Melndez who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.191 Orlando Antigua whose mother is Puerto Rican made history in 1995 when he became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.192 The Puerto Rico Islanders Football Club founded in 2003 plays in the United Soccer Leagues First Division which constitutes the second tier of football in North America. Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008 the archipelago's first unified league the Puerto Rico Soccer League was established. Secondary sports include Professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World's Best 10K held annually in San Juan has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics the Pan American Games the Caribbean World Series and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rican athletes have won six medals (one silver five bronze) in Olympic competition the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. On March 2006 San Juan's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. The Central American and Caribbean Games were held in 1993 in Ponce and will be held in 2010 in Mayagez. Education Main article: Education in Puerto Rico Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levelsPrimary (elementary school grades 16) Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 712) and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002 the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females.193 According to the 2000 Census 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher. Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18 and is enforced by the state. The Constitution of Puerto Rico grants the right to an education to every citizen on the island. To this end public schools in Puerto Rico provide free and non-sectarian education at the elementary and secondary levels. At any of the three levels students may attend either public or private schools. As of 1999 there were 1532 public schools194 and 569 private schools in the island.citation needed The largest and oldest university system in Puerto Rico is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este the multi-campus Inter American University the Pontifical Catholic University and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazn. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and four Law Schools. Transportation Tren Urbano at Bayamn Station Main article: Transportation in Puerto Rico Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads freeways expressways and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police Department. The island's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago) as well as Carros Pblicos (private mini buses). The island has three international airports the Luis Muoz Marn International Airport in Carolina Mercedita Airport in Ponce and the Rafael Hernndez Airport in Aguadilla and 27 local airports. The Luis Muoz Marn International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean and one of the largest in the world in terms of passenger and cargo movement.195 Puerto Rico has 9 ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement respectively.195 The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million 20 ft containers (TEUs) per year.196 Law enforcement In December 2009 the government of Puerto Rico enacted a new law (Law 191 of 2009) aimed at strengthening the issuance and usage of birth certificates to combat fraud and protect the identity and credit of all U.S. citizens born in Puerto Rico. The new law was based on collaboration with the U.S. Department of State (DOS) and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to address the fraudulent use of Puerto Rico-issued birth certificates to unlawfully obtain U.S. passports Social Security benefits and other federal services.197 Gov. Fortuo signed into law a bill that would prohibit the long-standing tradition by many public and private institutions in Puerto Rico of requiring an original birth certificate for many transactions such as enrolling in schools sports leagues and summer camps. It also invalidated all Puerto Rico-issued birth certificates effective July 1 2010 and mandated the issuance of new more secure birth certificates effective that date.198 The law was in response to a request by federal agencies that had identified major national identity fraud through a disproportionately fraudulent use of Puerto Rico-issued birth certificates. In the past many common official and unofficial transactions in Puerto Rico unnecessarily required the submission retention and storage of birth certificates. As a result hundreds of thousands of original birth certificates were stored without adequate protection making them easy targets for theft. Subsequently many birth certificates have been stolen from schools and other institutions sold on the black market for prices up to $10000 each and used to illegally obtain passports licenses and other government and private sector documentation and benefits. This left Puerto Rico-born U.S. citizens vulnerable to identity theft ruined credit stolen Social Security benefits and increased "random" security checks at airports among others. Several organizations including the National Institute for Latino Policy and the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund had urged the governor to delay the date on which all previously issued birth certificates would be invalidated.199 In June a law was signed by Fortuo extending the validity of birth certificates issued on or before June 30 2010 until September 30 2010 in order to provide additional time for new birth certificates to be procured. Secretary of State Kenneth McClintock made it clear that there had always been the intention to allow for a short period between the date new certificates would be issued and old certificates would become invalid previously unannounced so that the sense of urgency would not be lost.200 Fortuo subsequently signed an Executive Order extending the validity of birth certificates issued before July 1 2010 for a final 30-day period that ended on October 30 2010. See also Geography portal Latin America portal Caribbean portal Puerto Rico portal Main articles: Outline of Puerto Rico and Index of Puerto Rico-related articles List of Famous Puerto Ricans Did you know-Puerto Rico Notes  :In 1932 the U.S. Congress officially corrected what it had been misspelling as Porto Rico back into Puerto Rico.9 It had been using the former spelling in its legislative and judicial records since it acquired the territory. Patricia Gherovici states that both "Porto Rico" and "Puerto Rico" were used interchangably in the news media and documentation before during and after the U.S. invasion of the island in 1898. The "Porto" spelling for instance was used in the Treaty of Paris but "Puerto" was used by The New York Times that same year. Nancy Morris clarifies that "a curious oversight in the drafting of the Foraker Act caused the name of the island to be officially misspelled."10 References Nancy Morris (1995). Puerto Rico: Culture Politics and Identity. Praeger/Greenwood. p. 62. ISBN 0275952282. http://books.google.com/idvyQDYqz2kFsC&pgRA1-PA62&lpgRA1-PA62&dq%22puerto+rico%22+official+language+1993  2010.census.gov. Retrieved June 8 2009. a b "U.S. Department of State. Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty". State.gov. http://www.state.gov/s/inr/rls/10543.htm. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Carta Autonmica de 1897 de Puerto Rico "2010 U.S. Census Data". 2010.census.gov. http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/index.php. Retrieved February 6 2011.  a b "Government Development Bank of Puerto Rico May 2011". gdb-pur.com. http://www.gdb-pur.com/economy/documents/2011-05-16-AETabla1-2010.pdf. Retrieved June 02 2011.  "DESIGUALDAD ECONMICA EN PUERTO RICO" (PDF). tendenciaspr.com. http://www.tendenciaspr.com/Fichas/DesigualdadEco.pdf.  "Detailed Tables American FactFinder". Factfinder.census.gov. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DTTablebmy&-contextdt&-dsnameACS2006ESTG00&-CONTEXTdt&-mtnameACS2006ESTG2000B19083&-treeid306&-redoLogtrue&-geoid04000US72&-searchresults01000US&-parsedtrue&-format&-langen&-SubjectID14830196. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Pedro A. Malavet (2004). America's colony: the political and cultural conflict between the United States and Puerto Rico. NYU Press. pp. 43 181 note 76. ISBN 9780814756805. http://books.google.com/booksidpKqVpqGVsJYC.  Patricia Gherovici (2003). The Puerto Rican syndrome. Other Press LLC. pp. 140141. ISBN 9781892746757. http://books.google.com/booksid2jSsxVWxu2sC.  "Regions and Territories: Puerto Rico". British Broadcasting Corporation. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/countryprofiles/3593469.stm.  a b "World Factbook: Puerto Rico". Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rq.html.  Allatson Paul. Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural and Literary Studies p. 47. Malden Mass: Blackwell Publishing 2007. ISBN 1405102500. Dictionary: Taino Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean Retrieved: February 21 2008. (Based on the encyclopedia "Clsicos de Puerto Rico" 2nd. edition. Ed. Cayetano Coll y Toste. Publisher: Ediciones Latinoamericanas S.A. 1972.). H. B. Grose Advance in the Antilles: the new era in Cuba and Porto Rico Presbyterian Home Missions 1910. Google Books. August 8 2006. http://books.google.com/booksidqAMQAAAAIAAJ&printsecfrontcover&dqporto+rico&hlen&eiDWt0TNz5N8X6lweyoPTICA&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum2&ved0CEIQ6AEwAQ#vonepage&qland%20of%20the%20valiant%20lord&ffalse. Retrieved February 6 2011.  Abbad y Lasierra Iigo. Historia Geogrfica Civil y Natural de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico.  Mahaffy Cheryl (January 28 2006). "Vieques Island What lies beneath". Edmonton Journal. http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.htmlideb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7. Retrieved February 11 2006.  Pedro Torres. "The Dictionary of the Tano Language". Taino Inter-Tribal Council Inc.. http://members.dandy.net/orocobix/tedict.html. Retrieved February 11 2006.  Cheryl Mahaffy (January 30 2006). "Vieques Island: What lies beneath". Edmonton Journal. http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.htmlideb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7.  500 Years of Puerto Rican History through the Eyes of Others. The Newberry library. "History of Puerto Rico". http://welcome.topuertorico.org/history.shtml. Retrieved November 16 2009.  Today Puerto Ricans are also known as Boricuas or people from Borinquen. Vicente Yaez Pinzn is considered the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico but he never arrived on the island. Arthur C. Aufderheide; Conrado Rodrguez-Martn; Odin Langsjoen (1998). The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 204. ISBN 9780521552035. http://books.google.com/booksidqubTdDk1H3IC.  Kohn George C. (2008). Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. Infobase Publishing. p. 160. ISBN 0816069352.  Puerto Rico. Russell Schimmer GSP Yale University. Dietz p.38. "The Life of Sir Francis Drake". July 20 2004. http://www.drakenavigatorsguild.org/drakeslife.html. Retrieved March 1 2006.  Historias de Puerto Rico by Paul G. Miller (1947) pgs. 221237. Abbad y Lasierra Iigo. Historia Geogrfica Civil y Poltica de Puerto Rico. S.l.: Univ Of Puerto Rico Pr. ISBN 0-8477-0800-4.  (Spanish) Interview of Thomas Ellingwood Fortin Producer New Albion Pictures "Words from Pres. Ronald Reagan". Thecajuns.com. http://www.thecajuns.com/galvezrw.htm. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Real Cdula de 1789 "para el comercio de Negros". Negroni Hctor Andrs (1992) (in Spanish). Historia militar de Puerto Rico. Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario. ISBN 84-7844-138-7  "USA Seizes Puerto Rico". History of Puerto Rico. solboricua.com. 2000. http://www.solboricua.com/history2.htm#usa.  Magaly Rivera. "History". topuertorico.org. http://www.topuertorico.org/history4.shtml. Retrieved October 1 2007.  "Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War". The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War. Hispanic Division Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html.  a b Strategy as Politics; by: Jorge Rodriguez Beruff; Publisher: La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; page 7; ISBN 978-0-8477-0160-5 A.T. Mahan "The Influence of Sea Power upon History (16601783)" London: Sampson Low Marston Seale; page 83 David F. Trask. The war with Spain in 1898. University of Nebraska Press. 1996. ISBN9780803294295. Pages 7278. Google Books.ph. http://books.google.com.ph/booksid2f0Gf0DQfmUC&pgPA72. Retrieved February 6 2011.  Jorge Rodrguez Beruff peacehost.net. Strategy as Politics; by: Jorge Rodriguez Beruff; Publisher: La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; page 13; ISBN 978-0-8477-0160-5 "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain". The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School. Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library. December 10 1898. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19thcentury/sp1898.asp.  a b c d e "Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status" (PDF). December 2005. http://charma.uprm.edu/angel/PuertoRico/reportestatus.pdf. Retrieved October 1 2007.  Efrn Rivera Ramos (2007). American Colonialism in Puerto Rico: The Judicial and Social Legacy. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 5455. ISBN 9781558764101. http://books.google.com/booksidJ5l55R3mPoC.  The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 18031898. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Pages 166 178. "U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act chap. 190 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. 731 (1987)") "Sistema de Alerta de Tsunamis de Puerto Rico y el Caribe" (in Spanish). Red Ssmica de Puerto Rico. http://redsismica.uprm.edu/spanish/tsunami/index.php. Retrieved February 6 2011.  a b c "Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico. The Commission 70p np May 22 1937". Llmc.com. http://www.llmc.com/TitleLLMC.aspColID3&Cat136&TID7037&TNamePonce%20Massacre%20Com.%20of%20Inquiry%201937. Retrieved August 14 2010.  a b c d e Five Years of Tyranny Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives. The entire speech is contained in the Congressional Record of August 14 1939. It is reported in the Cong. Rec. and various other publications elsewhere that among those shot in the back was a 7-year-old girl Georgina Maldonado who "was killed through the back while running to a nearby church" Photos of police shooting with rifles (from positions previously occupied by marchers and bystanders) at bystanders running away. Puerto Rican History. Act of July 3 1950 Ch. 446 64 Stat. 319. View of Congress the Courts and the Federal Government. Rafael Hernandez Colon On The Nature Of Commonwealth V Puerto Rico Herald October 14 2004. Garca Marvin. "Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos". National-Louis University. http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/campos.cfm. Retrieved April 28 2006.  Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in Spanish (Spanish). Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in English (English translation). The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion 18031898. Ed. by Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield 2005. Cloth ISBN 0-7425-4983-6. Paper ISBN 0-7425-4984-4.) pp. 166167. Google Books. 2005. ISBN 9780742549845. http://books.google.com/booksidayINMXRtkEC&pgPA167#. Retrieved August 14 2010.  a b Keith Bea; R. Sam Garrett (April 23 2010). "Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service CRS RL32933. Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf. Retrieved December 3 2009.  "Puerto Rico's Pharmaceutical Industry". September 20 2006. http://www.pharmaceuticalonline.com/article.mvc/Puerto-Ricos-Pharmaceutical-Industry-40-Years-0003. Retrieved November 18 2010.  "Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Article I Section 2" (PDF). http://www.oslpr.org/english/PDF/The%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf. Retrieved August 14 2010.  a b c "U.S. Department of State. Foreign Affairs Manual: Volume 7 Consular Affairs (7 FAM 1120) 'Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions.' Pages 13." (PDF). http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/86756.pdf. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Rules of the House of Representativesdead link. Puerto Rico Primary Election Report Notice. 2008 Presidential Primary Dates and Candidates Filling Datelines for Ballot Access. Consulados. Link to Puerto Rico.dead link Mayagez. Enciclopedia de Puerto Rico. a b LinktoPR.com Fundacin de los Pueblos.dead link Keith Bea (May 25 2005). "Political Status of Puerto Rico: Background Options and Issues in the 109th Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf. Retrieved October 1 2007.  Department of Public Information United Nations General Assembly (June 13 2006). "Special committee on decolonization approves text calling on United States to expedite Puerto Rican self-determination process". Press release. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3138.doc.htm. Retrieved October 1 2007.  Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v Johnny Rullan Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Page 25. The United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf. Retrieved February 6 2010  Federal Relations Act (FRA) codified on U.S. Code Title 48 Chapter 4. Cornel University Law School. July 25 1952. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode48/uscsup0148104.html. Retrieved January 18 2010  "Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Article VII". Premium.caribe.net. http://premium.caribe.net/amvr/constitu.htm. Retrieved February 6 2011.  U.S. Code Title 48 Chapter 4 Subchapter I > 731. Cornell University Law School. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode48/uscsec4800000731----000-.html. Retrieved January 18 2010  Bea Keith (May 25 2005). Political Status of Puerto Rico: Background Options and Issues in the 109th Congress. Congressional Research Service The Library of Congress. pp. 56. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf. Retrieved October 15 2008  a b "United States v. Sanchez 992 F.2D 1143 (1993) United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit (Paragraphs 44 46)". ftp.resources.com. June 4 1993. http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/992/992.F2d.1143.90-5749.html. Retrieved January 21 2010  Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress. Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett Congressional Research Service. Dated June 19 2009. Page 29. Table B-1: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda 19671998. Page 29.. Retrieved December 5 2009. Elections in Puerto Rico: 1993 Status Plebiscite Results. Elections in Puerto Rico: 1998 Status Plebiscite Results. Downes v. Bidwell 182 U.S. 244 287 (1901); Balzac v. Porto Rico 258 U.S. 298 (1922). a b c d REPORT BY THE PRESIDENTS TASK FORCE ON PUERTO RICOS STATUS March 11 2011 The White House U.S. Const. art. IV 3 cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ..."). 39 Stat. 954 48 USCA 734 48 U.S.C.  734. "The statutory laws of the United States not locally inapplicable except as hereinbefore or hereinafter otherwise provided shall have the same force and effect in Porto Rico as in the United States ...". See United States v. Rios 140 F. Supp. 376 (D.P.R. 1956) (refusing to apply the Federal Firearms Act to transactions solely within Puerto Rico); United States. v. Acosta Martnez 106 F. Supp 2d 311 (D.P.R. 2000) (refusing to apply federal death penalty to Puerto Rico) revd 252 F. 3d 13 (1st Cir. 2001); cert. denied 535 U.S. 906 (2002). "Efrn Rivera-Ramos". Yale Law School..  Ramos Efrn Rivera (2005). "Puerto Rico's Political Status: The Long-Term Effect of American Expansionalist Discourse". In Levinson Sanford; Sparrow Bartholomew H.. The Louisiana Purchase and American expansion 18031898. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 168. ISBN 9780742549845. http://books.google.com/booksidayINMXRtkEC&pgPA165.  The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 18031898. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Page 166 178."U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act chap. 190 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. 731 (1987)") a b Constitutional Topic: Citizenship. U.S. Constitution Online. http://www.usconstitution.net/consttopciti.html. Retrieved June 6 2009  "Presidential elections in the United States: a primer" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. United States Congressional Research Service. April 17 2000. http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30527.pdf. Retrieved December 3 2009.  Puerto Rico Status Hearing before the Committee on Resources House of Representative One Hundred Fifth Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgidbname105househearings&docidf:40445.pdf. Retrieved June 7 2009  a b Torres v. Puerto Rico. Downes v. Bidwell 182 U.S. 244 261 (1901) commenting on an earlier Supreme Court decision Loughborough v. Blake 18 U.S. (5 Wheat.) 317 (1820); Rasmussen v. United States 197 U.S. 516 529530 536 (1905)(concurring opinions of Justices Harlan and Brown) that once the Constitution has been extended to an area its coverage is irrevocable; Boumediene v. Bush That where the Constitution has been once formally extended by Congress to territories neither Congress nor the territorial legislature can enact laws inconsistent therewith. The Constitution grants Congress and the President the power to acquire dispose of and govern territory not the power to decide when and where its terms apply. "Posadas de Puerto Rico Assoc. v. Tourism Co. 478 U.S. 328 (1986)". FindLaw. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.plcourtUS&vol478&invol328. Retrieved January 10 2010.  478 U.S. 328 (1986) Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico Examining Board v. Flores de Otero "Torres v. Puerto Rico". FindLaw.com Supreme Court Case Law. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.plcourtUS&vol442&invol465. Retrieved September 9 2009  Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v Johnny Rullan Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf. Retrieved December 20 2009  Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution Dormant Commerce Clause a b Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v Johnny Rullan Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf. Retrieved December 31 2009  Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v Johnny Rullan Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf. Retrieved January 17 2010  "Puerto Ricans pay import/export taxes". Stanford.wellsphere.com. http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Puerto Ricans pay federal commodity taxes. "Internal Revenue Service. 'Topic 903 Federal Employment Tax in Puerto Rico'". Irs.gov. December 18 2009. http://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc903.html. Retrieved August 14 2010.  a b "Reuters. 'Puerto Rico hopes to gain from U.S. healthcare reform.' 24 September 2009". Reuters. September 24 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSTRE58N5X320090924. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Schaefer Brett. "The Heritage Foundation 11 March 2009. 'D.C. Voting Rights: No Representation No Taxation!' By Robert A. Book PhD". Heritage.org. http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2009/03/dc-voting-rights-no-representation-no-taxation. Retrieved October 16 2010.  "Puerto Rico Manufacturers Association CEO Summit. 'Federal and Local Incentives: Where we are Where We Want to be. By Amaya Iraolagoitia Partner Tax Dept." (PDF). http://www.mcvpr.com/CM/CurrentEvents/CEOsummitarticle.pdf. Retrieved August 14 2010.  a b "Joint Committee on Taxation. An Overview of the Special Tax Rules Related to Puerto Rico and an Analysis of the Tax and Economic Policy Implications of Recent Legislative Options" (PDF). http://www.jct.gov/x-24-06.pdf. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Members of the military must pay federal income tax106 as well as those who are residents of Puerto Rico but with income sourced in the US mainland.109 "Table 5. Internal Revenue Gross Collections by Type of Tax and State Fiscal year 2009" (XLS). irs.gov. http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-soi/09db05co.xls.  "Puerto Rico receives less than 15% of the Medicaid funding that similar states of the Union currently receive". Magiccarpetautotransport.com. http://www.magiccarpetautotransport.com/auto-transport/puerto-rico-auto-transport.php. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration. 1dead link Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v Johnny Rullan Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf. Retrieved January 2 2010  Who was Agustn Ramos Calero The Puerto Rican Soldier August 17 2005. PDF format. Retrieved November 19 2006.dead link Mr. Asencio. "Grave and Ever Present Danger: The CCF Spring Offensives Part I April 1951". valerosos.com. p. 10. http://www.valerosos.com/CCFSpringOffensive.pdf. Retrieved October 16 2010.  "City of Lorain". City of Lorain. http://www.cityoflorain.org/calendar/e36222. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Brozan Nadine (August 11 1992). "Chronicle". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.htmlres9E0CE4D6103EF932A2575BC0A964958260. Retrieved January 2 2008.  Nieves New York Times 1993 resolution 740 (27 november 1953) "Cessation of transmission o the information under article 73 e of the Charter in respect of Puerto Rico". GA Resolution 1541 (December 15 1960) "Principles which should guide Members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for in article 73 e of the Charter. (See ANNEX)." a b c d "Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status" (PDF). December 2007. http://www.primerahora.com/XStatic/primerahora/docs/espanol/whitehousestatusreport.pdf. Retrieved December 24 2007.  Art. IV Sec. 3 clause 2 U.S. Constitution. "Puerto Rico Status Field Hearing". Committee on Resources U.S. House of Representatives 105th Congress. April 19 1997. http://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/Rcp105:FLD010:@1%28hr131%29:. Retrieved October 1 2007.  "1541 (XV). Principles which should guide Members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for under Article 73 e of the Charter". United Nations General Assembly. December 15 1960. http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs3/GAres-1541.htm.  Independence Hearing by the Puerto Rico Herald. Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress. Congressional Research Service. August 4 2009. http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL3293320090804.pdf.  Members Hear Petitioners Speak up for Independence Statehood Free Association. General Assembly of the United Nations. June 15 2009. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/gacol3193.doc.htm.  a b "US lawmakers clear path for new Puerto Rico referendum". Agence France-Presse. April 29 2010. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hbnA3Ucau6IF7lEjqdfo40sqVy3A.  "Text of H.R. 2499: Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010". govtrack.us. April 29 2010. http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpdbillh111-2499.  "Official Website of the U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources". Energy.senate.gov. May 19 2010. http://energy.senate.gov/public/index.cfmFuseactionHearings.Hearing&HearingID5fad861f-a654-fbaf-b014-786dc0cc4fae. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Fortuo hails US senators status letter to Obama US senators to Obama: Only 4 PR status options Senate committee co-chairs seek White House view on P.R. status a b CIA The World Factbook Puerto Rico#Geography. "Welcome to Puerto Rico!". topuertorico.org. http://www.topuertorico.org/descrip.shtml. Retrieved December 30 2007  "CIA The World Factbook Jamaica". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jm.html#Geo. Retrieved April 24 2008.  "CIA The World Factbook Cuba". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cu.html#Geo. Retrieved April 24 2008.  "Caribbean National Forest El Yunque Trail #15". GORP.com. http://www.gorp.com/parks-guide/travel-ta-caribbean-national-forest-hiking-fishing-puerto-rico-sidwcmdev066593.html. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Los Lagos de Puerto Rico (archived from the originaldead link on June 29 2007). (Spanish) Andrzej Pisera Michael Martinez Hernan Santos (May 2006). "Late Cretaceous Siliceous Sponges From El Rayo Formation Puerto Rico". Journal of Paleontology. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/miqa3790/is200605/ain17177064. Retrieved May 6 2008.  "Earthquake History of Puerto Rico". U.S. Geological Survey. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/puertorico/puertoricohistory.php. 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Retrieved August 14 2010.  Anglelo Falcn "Atlas of Stateside Puerto Ricans" Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration published December 6 2004 retrieved February 5 2007dead link Post Store (May 2 2006). "Puerto Rico Extends Government Shutdown. 'The Washington Post'". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/02/AR2006050200458.html. Retrieved August 14 2010.  "Navigating Puerto Ricos New Sales-and-Use Tax. AICPA". Cpa2biz.com. http://www.cpa2biz.com/Content/media/PRODUCERCONTENT/Newsletters/Articles2008/CorpTax/navigate.jsp. Retrieved August 14 2010.  a b American FactFinder United States Census Bureau. "R1901. Median Household Income. U.S Census Burea". Factfinder.census.gov. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GRTTablebmy&-boxheadnbrR1901&-dsnameACS20091YRG00&-langen&-formatUS-30&-CONTEXTgrt. Retrieved June 3 2011.  See List of North American countries by GDP per capita. "Puerto Rico Governor enacts measures to eliminate deficit. 'The Caribbean News'". Caribbeannetnews.com. http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/news-13855--21-21--.html. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Kaske Michelle (January 15 2009). "Puerto Rico gov signs deficit bill. 'The Bond Buyer'". Bondbuyer.com. http://www.bondbuyer.com/article.htmlid20090114ZXYD2CJP. Retrieved August 14 2010.  http://www.elnuevodia.com/essumamenteduroytemarca-895748.html "Local Area Unemployment Statistics: Puerto Rico". US Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServletdatatoollatestnumbers&seriesidLASST43000003. Retrieved March 22 2010.  "Strike protests job cuts in Puerto Rico". CNN. October 16 2009. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/10/15/puerto.rico.strike/. Retrieved October 15 2009.  "Ante la Legislatura la reforma contributiva El Nuevo Da". Elnuevodia.com. http://www.elnuevodia.com/antelalegislaturalareformacontributiva-823151.html. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "Apple Education Store Find Your School and Shop Apple Store (U.S.)". Store.apple.com. September 7 2010. http://store.apple.com/us-hed/findyourschool. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "Best Buy". Best Buy. http://www.bestbuy.com/. Retrieved February 6 2011.  Van Middeldyk R.A. "Part 4". The History of Puerto Rico. ISBN 0405062419. http://www.fullbooks.com/The-History-of-Puerto-Rico4.html. Retrieved May 29 2008.  American FactFinder United States Census Bureau. "U.S Census". Factfinder.census.gov. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTablebmy&-geoid04000US72&-qrnameDEC2000SF1UDP1&-dsnameDEC2000SF1U. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals substantial Native American ancestry in Puerto Rico Lorena Madrigal Madrigal (2006). Human biology of Afro-Caribbean populations. Cambridge University Press 2006. p. 121. ISBN 9780521819312. http://books.google.com/idddnkIaZRHxEC&pgPA121&dqPuerto+Rico+Amerindian+mtDNA#vonepage&q&ffalse.  "About Puerto Rico". To Puerto Rico. Magaly Rivera toPuertoRico.org. http://topuertorico.org/descrip.shtml.  Prensa Asociada (February 24 2009). "'Se discrimina al usar el ingls en algunos tribunales de Puerto Rico' NY Daily News. Feb 24 2009. (In Spanish)". Daily News (New York). http://www.nydailynews.com/latino/espanol/2009/02/25/2009-02-25sediscriminaalusarelinglsenalguno-2.html. Retrieved August 14 2010.  "20052009 Population and Housing Narrative Profile for Puerto Rico". U.S. Census Narrative Profile. U.S. Census. 2005-2009. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/NPTablebmy&-geoid04000US72&-qrnameACS20095YRG00NPPR01&-dsname&-redoLogfalse. Retrieved May 19 2011.   "Porto Rico". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.  "Sobre Nosotros". Episcopalpr.org. http://episcopalpr.org/sobrenosotros/sobrenosotros.html. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "La presencia Germanica en Puerto Rico". Preb.com. http://www.preb.com/articulos/aleman2.htm. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "Latin American issues Vol. 3". Webpub.allegheny.edu. http://webpub.allegheny.edu/group/LAS/LatinAmIssues/Articles/Vol13/LAIvol13sectionI.html. Retrieved February 6 2011.  Eduardo Giorgetti Y Su Mundo: La Aparente Paradoja De Un Millonario Genio Empresarial Y Su Noble Humanismo"; by Delma S. Arrigoitia; Publisher: Ediciones Puerto; ISBN 0942347528; ISBN 9780942347524 "Korber House". Prairieschooltraveler.com. http://www.prairieschooltraveler.com/html/world/pr/Korber.html. Retrieved February 6 2011.  a b "The Virtual Jewish History Tour Puerto Rico". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/PuertoRico.html. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "Luxner News". Luxner.com. August 3 2004. http://www.luxner.com/cgi-bin/viewarticle.cgiarticleID1237. Retrieved February 6 2011.  Institute of Islamic Information and Education: Number of Muslims and Percentage in Puero Rico Retrieved June 11 2009. Percent Puerto Rican population that are Muslims Retrieved June 8 2009.dead link Muslim mosques in Pto. Rico Retrieved June 8 2009. "Muslims concentrated in Rio Piedras". Saudiaramcoworld.com. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198706/muslims.in.the.caribbean.htm. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "Budda Net". Buddhanet.net. http://www.buddhanet.net/ltibet.htm. Retrieved February 6 2011.  Giovannetti Jorge L. "Popular Music and Culture in Puerto Rico: Jamaican and Rap Music as Cross-Cultural Symbols." In Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in the Americas ed. Frances R. Aparicio and Cndida F. Jquez 8198. "Puerto Rican Music TV". Puerto Rican Music TV. http://www.puertoricanmusictv.com/. Retrieved August 14 2010.  Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Roberto Clemente. Retrieved October 16 2010. Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Orlando Cepeda. Retrieved October 16 2010. BBC Sports Olympics 2004. Jess Omar Rivera (October 29 2008). "Boricuas lucos en una rueda" (in Spanish). Primera Hora. http://www.primerahora.com/boricuasluciosenunarueda-boricuazo-especial-nota-243205.html. Retrieved October 16 2010.  Joshua Hammann (October 14 2008). "Melendez adds a new country to Globetrotters' resume". ESPN. http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/hispanicheritage2008/news/storyid3641638. Retrieved November 7 2008.  "A Non-Black Player Joins Globetrotters". New York Times (Antigua &Amp; Barbuda). December 28 1995. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.htmlres9900E3DD1239F93BA15751C1A963958260. Retrieved August 14 2010.  "CIA FactBook". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rq.html. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" (PDF). Departamento de Educacin De Puerto Rico. Archived from the original on May 28 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080528060210/http://www.de.gobierno.pr/NR/rdonlyres/D3388419-2932-4654-9C59-FBC4585A9CF7/0/PRStateReportCard20022003.pdf. Retrieved May 5 2008.  a b "Aeropuertos Internacionales y Regionales (Spanish)". Puerto Rico Ports Authority. http://www.prpa.gobierno.pr/APMain.aspx. Retrieved February 6 2011.  "About the Project Overview". Port of the Americas Authority. http://www.portoftheamericas.com/about.project/overview.htm. Retrieved July 28 2008.  "Puerto Rico Birth Certificate Law 191 of 2009" (PDF). http://lieberman.senate.gov/assets/pdf/PuertoRico2.pdf. Retrieved February 6 2011.  Three Month Extension of Current Puerto Rico Birth Certificates Enacted to Provide Transition to New More Secure Documents Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration June 28 2010. Activists tell Puerto Rico Gov. Luis Fortuno a new birth certificate law harms mainland residents Los Angeles Times Isolde Raferty Puerto Rico Extends Deadline for Birth Certificates The New York Times June 29 2010. External links Find more about Puerto Rico on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks BBC Territory profile Encyclopaedia Britannica profile Datos y Estadisticas de Puerto Rico y sus Municipios (In Spanish) Puerto Rico entry at The World Factbook Puerto Rico at the Open Directory Project Five Years of Tyranny by Congressman Vito Marcantonio Wikimedia Atlas of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico travel guide from Wikitravel Puerto Rican government Official website (Spanish) United States government Application of the U.S. Constitution in U.S. Insular Areas November 1997 United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico U.N. 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