"Nixon" redirects here. For other uses see Nixon (disambiguation). For other people named Nixon see Nixon (surname). Richard M. Nixon Richard Nixon in 1973. 37th President of the United States In office January 20 1969  August 9 1974 Vice President Spiro Agnew Gerald Ford Preceded by Lyndon B. Johnson Succeeded by Gerald Ford 36th Vice President of the United States In office January 20 1953  January 20 1961 President Dwight D. Eisenhower Preceded by Alben W. Barkley Succeeded by Lyndon B. Johnson United States Senator from California In office December 4 1950  January 1 1953 Preceded by Sheridan Downey Succeeded by Thomas Kuchel Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 12th District In office January 3 1947  December 1 1950 Preceded by Jerry Voorhis Succeeded by Patrick J. Hillings Born January 9 1913(1913-01-09) Yorba Linda California Died April 22 1994(1994-04-22) (aged 81) New York City New York Resting place Nixon Presidential Library Yorba Linda California Political party Republican Spouse(s) Thelma Catherine "Pat" Ryan (m. 19401993) Relations Francis A. Nixon (father) Hannah Milhous Nixon (mother) Children Tricia Nixon Cox Julie Nixon Eisenhower Alma mater Whittier College (B.A.) Duke University (LL.B.) Occupation Lawyer Religion Quaker Signature Military service Service/branch United States Navy Years of service 194246 Rank Lieutenant commander Battles/wars World War II (Pacific Theater) Awards American Campaign Medal Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (with two service stars) World War II Victory Medal

Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9 1913 April 22 1994) was the 37th President of the United States in office from 1969 to 1974. He served as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 the only person to be elected twice to both the Presidency and the Vice Presidency. A member of the Republican Party he was the only President to resign from office.

Nixon was born in Yorba Linda California. After completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law in Whittier and La Habra. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor he joined the United States Navy serving in the Pacific theater and rose to the rank of Lieutenant Commander during World War II. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 representing California's 12th congressional district. In 1950 he was elected to the United States Senate as the Junior Senator from California. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower the Republican Party nominee in the 1952 Presidential election becoming one of the youngest Vice Presidents in history. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960 narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy and an unsuccessful campaign for Governor of California in 1962; following these losses Nixon announced his withdrawal from political life. In 1968 however he ran again for President of the United States and was elected.

The most immediate task facing President Nixon was a resolution of the Vietnam War. He initially escalated the conflict overseeing incursions into neighboring countries though American military personnel were gradually withdrawn and he successfully negotiated a ceasefire with North Vietnam in 1973 effectively ending American involvement in the war. His foreign policy initiatives were largely successful: his groundbreaking visit to the People's Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations between the two nations and he initiated dtente and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. On the domestic front he implemented the concept of New Federalism transferring power from the federal government to the states; new economic policies which called for wage and price control and the abolition of the gold standard; sweeping environmental reforms including the Clean Air Act and creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency; the launch of the War on Cancer and War on Drugs; reforms empowering women including Title IX; and the desegregation of schools in the deep South. He was reelected by a landslide in 1972. He continued many reforms in his second term though the nation was afflicted with an energy crisis. In the face of likely impeachment for his role in the Watergate scandal1 Nixon resigned on August 9 1974. He was later controversially pardoned by his successor Gerald Ford for any federal crimes he may have committed while in office.

In his retirement Nixon became a prolific author and undertook many foreign trips. His work as an elder statesman helped to rehabilitate his public image. He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18 1994 and died four days later at the age of 81. Contents 1 Early life 2 Law practice 3 Marriage 4 World War II 5 Congressional career 5.1 House of Representatives 5.2 Senate 6 Vice Presidency (19531961) 7 1960 presidential election 8 Wilderness years 9 1968 presidential election 10 Presidency (19691974) 10.1 First term (19691973) 10.1.1 Vietnam War 10.1.2 Economy 10.1.3 Initiatives within the federal government 10.1.4 Civil rights 10.1.5 U.S. space program 10.1.6 Indo-Pakistani War 10.1.7 China 10.1.8 Soviet Union 10.1.9 1972 presidential campaign 10.2 Second term (1973-1974) 10.2.1 Continuation of economic changes 10.2.2 Yom Kippur War and 1973 oil crisis 10.2.3 Watergate 10.3 Resignation 10.4 Judicial appointments 10.5 Pardons 11 Later life 11.1 Pardon and illness 11.2 Rehabilitation 11.3 Elder statesman 12 Death and funeral 13 Legacy 14 Personality and public image 15 In popular culture 16 See also 17 Bibliography 18 Notes 19 References 20 External links Early life

Nixon was born on January 9 1913 to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon in a house his father had built in Yorba Linda California.234 His mother was a Quaker and his upbringing was marked by conservative Quaker observances of the time such as refraining from drinking dancing and swearing. His father converted from Methodism to Quakerism after his marriage.4 Nixon had four brothers: Harold (19091933) Donald (19141987) Arthur (19181925) and Ed (born 1930).5 Four of the five Nixon boys were named after early English kings; Richard was named after Richard the Lionheart.6

Nixon's early life was marked by hardship and he would later quote a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood: "We were poor but the glory of it was we didn't know it."7 The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922 and the family then moved to Whittier California in an area with many Quakers where his father opened a grocery store and gas station.8 Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 after a short illness9 and his older brother Harold whom Richard greatly admired died of tuberculosis in 1933.10 Historian David Reynolds summarises : "His father was a violent bully his mother a devoted Quaker and home-maker yet the young Richard drew no real warmth from her; there were few hugs and kisses. Much of his mother's energy was expended on his sickly brothers. Richard grew up insecure withdrawn and emotionally bottled-upyet these trials spurred a fierce ambition."11

Nixon attended Fullerton High School in Fullerton but later he transferred to Whittier High School where he graduated second in his class in 1930.12 He lost the 1929 student body presidential election at Whittier to a more popular student a loss which wounded him but would be his last electoral defeat for 31 years.13 Richard was offered a scholarship to Harvard but his family lacked the money for him to travel to and live in the East; he instead lived at home and took up a scholarship to Whittier College.1415 a local Quaker school where he co-founded a fraternity known as The Orthogonian Society. Nixon was a formidable debater standout in collegiate drama productions student body president and was on the college baseball football and track teams.1516 While at Whittier he lived at home and worked at his family's store;15 he also taught Sunday school at East Whittier Friends Church where he remained a member all his life. In 1934 he graduated second in his class from Whittier.15 In 1933 Nixon became engaged to Ola Florence Welch; daughter of the Whittier police chief; the two broke up in 1935.17

Nixon received a full scholarship to Duke University School of Law.15 At the time the law school was new and sought to attract the top students by offering scholarships.18 This high-expense approach to building a law school applied to the faculty as well which was given high salaries; most professors had national or international reputations.19 The number of scholarships were greatly reduced for second and third year students forcing the students into intense competition.18 Nixon was elected president of the Duke Bar Association20 and graduated third in his class in June 1937.15 Nixon later spoke about the influence of his alma mater saying "I always remember that whatever I have done in the past or may do in the future Duke University is responsible in one way or another."21 Law practice

Although Nixon's first choice was to get a job with the Federal Bureau of Investigation he returned to California and was admitted to the bar in 1937. He began practicing with Wingert and Bewley15 where he worked on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters as well as on wills. By his own admission Nixon would not work on divorce because he was "severely embarrassed by women's confessions of sexual misconduct." Nixon found the practice of law unexciting but thought that it would gain him experience that would be beneficial in a future political career.22 In 1938 he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra California23 becoming a full partner in the firm the following year.24 Marriage In January 1938 Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower. There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan.1525 Nixon pursued her but initially Ryan was not interested in a relationship. He began making unannounced visits to her home and would take her on Sunday drives to the Quaker Sunday School where he was a teacher.26 After several proposals Ryan eventually agreed to marry Nixon and they wed at a small ceremony on June 21 1940.15 After a honeymoon in Mexico the Nixons moved to Long Beach then settled into an apartment in East Whittier a few months later.27 In January 1942 they moved to Washington D.C. where Richard Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration.15 World War II Lieutenant Commander Richard Nixon of the United States Navy 1945 Nixon was eligible for an exemption from military service both as a Quaker and through his job working for the OPA but he did not seek one and was commissioned into the United States Navy in August 1942.15 He was trained at Naval Air Station Quonset Point Rhode Island and was assigned to Ottumwa Naval Air Station Iowa for seven months. He was subsequently reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater.2829 After requesting more challenging duties he was given command of cargo handling units.30 Nixon returned to the United States with two service stars (although he saw no actual combat) and a citation of commendation and became the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station.31 In January 1945 he was transferred to Philadelphia's Bureau of Aeronautics office to help negotiate the termination of war contracts. There he received another letter of commendation this time from Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal. In October 1945 he was promoted to lieutenant commander.31 He resigned his commission on New Year's Day 1946.32 Congressional career House of Representatives Soon after World War II ended a group of Whittier Republicans approached Nixon about running for a seat in the United States House of Representatives.33 Nixon accepted their offer and waged a campaign which ended in a victory over the five-term Democratic incumbent Jerry Voorhis in November 1946. Nixon represented southern California's 12th Congressional district for the next four years.33 He helped finance the campaign with his World War II poker winnings.3435 Nixon while serving in Congress In Congress Nixon supported the Taft-Hartley Act of 194736 and served on the Education and Labor Committee.33 He was part of the Herter Committee which went to Europe to prepare a preliminary report on the newly enacted Marshall Plan.33 Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation on the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) broke the impasse of the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers' allegations that Hiss a high State Department official was a Soviet spy Nixon believed the allegations to be true. He discovered that Chambers saved microfilm reproductions of incriminating documents by hiding the film in a pumpkin.37 They were alleged to be accessible only to Hiss and to have been typed on his personal typewriter. Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for statements he made to the HUAC. The discovery that Hiss committed perjury and thus may well have been a Soviet spy thrust Nixon into the spotlight for the first time.38 This case turned the young Congressman into a controversial figure.33 He was easily reelected in 1948.33 Senate In the 1950 mid-term elections Nixon ran against Democratic Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas for a seat in the U.S. Senate representing California.39 The campaign is best remembered as one of the most contentious of the times. Nixon felt the former actress was a left-wing sympathizer labeling her "pink right down to her underwear."39 Conversely Douglas referred to Nixon as "Tricky Dick"39 a derisive nickname which remained with him for the rest of his life. In the November election Nixon defeated Douglas. In the Senate Nixon took a prominent position in opposing the spread of global communism traveling frequently and speaking out against "the threat."39 He also criticized what he perceived to be President Harry S. Truman's mishandling of the Korean War.39 He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii voted in favor of civil rights for minorities and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia.40 He voted against price controls and other monetary controls benefits for illegal immigrants and public power.40 Vice Presidency (19531961) Eisenhower and Nixon at Dinner with King Saud Main article: Eisenhower Administration In part because of his reputation as an ardent anti-communist 39-year-old Nixon was selected by Republican party nominee General Dwight D. Eisenhower to be the Vice Presidential candidate at the Republican National Convention in July 1952.41 In September the New York Post published an article claiming that campaign donors were buying influence with Nixon by providing him with a secret cash fund for his personal expenses.41 Nixon responded that the fund was not secret and the campaign commissioned an independent review which showed that it was used only for political purposes.42 Republicans including some within Eisenhower's campaign pressured Eisenhower to remove Nixon from the ticket but Eisenhower realized that he was unlikely to win without Nixon.43 Vice President and Mrs. Nixon in Ghana 1957 Vice President Nixon with Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev 1959 Nixon appeared on television on September 23 1952 to defend himself against the allegations. He detailed his personal finances and mentioned the independent third-party review of the fund's accounting.41 While it was the first time that a national politician released his tax returns the speech became best known for its rhetoric such as his remark that his wife Pat did not wear mink but rather "a respectable Republican cloth coat" and that although he had been given an American Cocker Spaniel named Checkers in addition to his other campaign contributions he was not going to give the dog back because his daughters loved it.41 It became known as the "Checkers speech" it resulted in much support from the base of the Republican Party and from the general public44 and greatly aided Nixon in remaining on the ticket.41 In the 1952 presidential elections Eisenhower and Nixon defeated Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson and Alabama Senator John Sparkman by seven million votes.41 Nixon assumed the office as the second youngest Vice President in American history.45 As Vice President Nixon expanded the office into an important and prominent post.4146 Nixon conducted National Security meetings in the president's absence.41 As President of the Senate he intervened to make procedural rulings on filibusters to assure the passage of Eisenhower's 1957 civil rights bill which created the United States Commission on Civil Rights and protected voting rights.47 Although he had little formal power Nixon had the attention of the media and the Republican Party. Using these he and his wife undertook many foreign trips of goodwill to garner support for American policies during the Cold War.41 On one such trip to Caracas Venezuela anti-American protesters disrupted and assaulted Nixon's motorcade pelting his limousine with rocks shattering windows and injuring Venezuela's foreign minister.41 Nixon was lauded and attracted international media attention for his appearance of calm and coolness during the incidents.41 In March 1957 he visited Libya for a program of economic and military aid.48 Nixon was and is still the highest-ranking U.S. official to visit the African nation. In July 1959 President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for Moscow's opening of the American National Exhibition.41 Before his visit Nixon cautioned: "There is no magic formula which will settle the differences between us no conference at the Summit which will dramatically end world tensions. The road to peace is a long and a hard one and if we are to stay on it both our people and our leaders must display patience and understanding to a maximum degree."49 On July 24 while touring the exhibits with Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange that became known as the "Kitchen Debate" about the merits of capitalism versus communism.41 As Vice President he officially opened the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley California.50 1960 presidential election Main article: United States presidential election 1960 Nixon debates John F. Kennedy in the first-ever televised U.S. presidential election debate. In 1960 Nixon launched his campaign for President of the United States. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries. In his acceptance speech after winning the nomination at the Republican convention Nixon said: "I can only say tonight to you that I believe in the American dream because I have seen it come true in my own life. With faith in America with faith in her ideals and in her people I accept her nomination for President of the United States."51 He chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate.41 His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy and the race remained close for the duration.52 Nixon campaigned on his experience but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower-Nixon administration allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in ballistic missiles (the "missile gap"). Kennedy told voters it was time to "get the country moving again."53 In the midst of the campaign Nixon advocated stimulative tax cuts in what would become one of the core tenets of the supply-side theory of economics.54 He also presented a plan for economic growth and deficit reduction which appealed to many.54 A new medium was brought to the campaign: televised presidential debates. In the first of four such debates Nixon was recovering from illness and wearing little makeup looked wan and uncomfortable in contrast to the composed Kennedy.41 Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television though many people listening on the radio thought that Nixon had won.55 Nixon lost the election narrowly with Kennedy ahead by only 120000 votes (0.2%) in the popular vote.41 There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois; Nixon supporters unsuccessfully challenged results in both states as well as nine others.56 After all the court battles and recounts were done Kennedy had a greater number of electoral votes than he held after Election Day.56 Nixon halted further investigations to avoid a Constitutional crisis.56 Nixon and Kennedy later met in Key Biscayne Florida where Kennedy offered Nixon a job in his administration an offer which Nixon declined.57 Wilderness years Nixon playing the piano Beverly Hills California 1962 Following his loss to Kennedy Nixon and his family returned to California where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book Six Crises.41 It recorded his political involvement as a congressman senator and vice president and used six different crises Nixon had experienced throughout his political career to illustrate his political memoirs. The work won praise from many policy experts and critics. It also found a favorable critic in Mao Zedong who referred to the book during Nixon's visit in 1972.58 Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California in the 1962 election.41 Despite initial reluctance Nixon entered the race.41 The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the governorship as a political "stepping-stone" to a higher office some opposition from the far-right of the party and his own lack of interest in being California's governor.41 He lost to Brown by nearly 300000 votes.41 This loss was widely believed to be the end of his career;41 in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent saying "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because gentlemen this is my last press conference."41 The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11 1962 episode of ABC's Howard K. Smith: News and Comment entitled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon."59 The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963; Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited.60 The family soon moved to New York City where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon Mudge Rose Guthrie & Alexander.41 In 1963 the family bought an apartment at 810 Fifth Avenue.61 Nelson Rockefeller lived upstairs and during the Presidential campaign of 1968 the two used different entrances and elevators.626364 In MarchApril 1964 he made a trip to Asia which included South Vietnam and Japan. During and immediately after the trip he made many media appearances in which he called on the Johnson Administration to escalate the struggle against communism in South East Asia to the point of invading North Vietnam and Laos.65 Though largely out of the public eye he was still supported by much of the Republican base who respected his knowledge of politics and international affairs.41 This reputation was enhanced when Nixon wrote an article in Foreign Affairs entitled "Asia After Vietnam"41 in which he proposed a new relationship with China.66 He campaigned for Republican candidates in the 1966 Congressional elections41 and took an extended trip to South America and parts of the Middle East in 1967.67 Toward the end of 1967 Nixon was experiencing a crisis of indecision about whether to run for president the following year. He consulted with longtime friend the Reverend Billy Graham who urged him to run.68 He later held a dinner at his home with friends and all except his wife supported a presidential bid.68 He formally announced his candidacy for president of the United States on February 1 1968.68 1968 presidential election Main article: Richard Nixon presidential campaign 1968 Nixon sporting the "Victory" sign while campaigning in Paoli Pennsylvania in July 1968. Throughout the campaign Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval.69 He appealed to what he called the "silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators and secured the nomination in August. His running mate Maryland governor Spiro Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups solidifying Nixon's position with the right.70 Nixon waged a prominent television campaign meeting with supporters in front of cameras and advertising on the television medium.71 He stressed that the crime rate was too high and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority.72 His campaign was aided by turmoil within the Democratic Party:69 President Lyndon B. Johnson consumed with the Vietnam War announced that he would not seek reelection. After a contentious Democratic primary campaign Vice President Hubert Humphrey held a moderate but not decisive lead over Senator Robert F. Kennedy; however Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles following the final California primary. Humphrey was nominated at a convention marked by mass protests.69 Nixon appeared to represent a calmer society.69 With regard to the Vietnam War he promised peace with honor and campaigned on the notion that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific." He did not give specific plans on how to end the war resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan".73 His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.71 In a three-way race between Nixon Humphrey and independent candidate George Wallace Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500000 votes to become the 37th President of the United States on November 5 1968.69 In response to a congratulatory message from Humphrey Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one."74 Presidency (19691974) Nixon is sworn in as the 37th President on January 20 1969 with the new First Lady Pat holding the family Bibles. First term (19691973) Nixon was inaugurated on January 20 1969. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open to Isaiah 2:4 reading "They shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address which received almost uniformly positive reviews Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker."75 He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity: "In these difficult years America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices."76 Nixon set out to reconstruct the Western Alliance develop a relationship with China pursue arms control agreements with the Soviet Union activate a peace process in the Middle East restrain inflation implement anti-crime measures accelerate desegregation and reform welfare. The most immediate task however was the Vietnam War.75 The Nixon Cabinet Office Name Term President Richard Nixon 19691974 Vice President Spiro Agnew 19691973 Gerald Ford 19731974 Secretary of State William P. Rogers 19691973 Henry Kissinger 19731974 Secretary of Treasury David M. Kennedy 19691971 John Connally 19711972 George Shultz 19721974 William Simon 1974 Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird 19691973 Elliot Richardson 1973 James Schlesinger 19731974 Attorney General John N. Mitchell 19691972 Richard Kleindienst 19721973 Elliot Richardson 1973 William B. Saxbe 1974 Postmaster General Winton M. Blount 19691971 Secretary of the Interior Walter Joseph Hickel 19691971 Rogers Morton 19711974 Secretary of Agriculture Clifford M. Hardin 19691971 Earl Butz 19711974 Secretary of Commerce Maurice Stans 19691972 Peter Peterson 19721973 Frederick B. Dent 19731974 Secretary of Labor George Shultz 19691970 James D. Hodgson 19701973 Peter J. Brennan 19731974 Secretary of Health Education and Welfare Robert Finch 19691970 Elliot Richardson 19701973 Caspar Weinberger 19731974 Secretary of Housing and Urban Development George W. Romney 19691973 James Thomas Lynn 19731974 Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe 19691973 Claude Brinegar 19731974 Richard Nixon with French president Georges Pompidou in Reykjavk Iceland May 31 1973. Vietnam War Main articles: Vietnam War and Role of United States in the Vietnam War When Nixon took office 300 American soldiers were dying per week in Vietnam. The Johnson administration had negotiated a deal in which the U.S. would suspend bombing in North Vietnam in exchange for unconditional negotiations but this faltered. Nixon faced the choice of devising a new policy to chance securing South Vietnam as a non-communist state or withdrawing American forces completely.77 Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia in March 196978 (code-named Operation Menu) to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam. The Air Force considered the bombings a success.78 He then proposed simultaneous substantial withdrawals of North Vietnamese and American forces from South Vietnam one year after reaching a mutual agreement.79 In June 1969 in a campaign fulfillment Nixon reduced troop strength in Vietnam by 25000 soldiers who returned home to the United States. From 1969 to 1972 troop reduction in Vietnam was estimated to be 405000 soldiers.80 In July 1969 the Nixons visited South Vietnam where President Nixon met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyen Van Thieu. Amid protests at home he implemented what became known as the Nixon Doctrine a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops also called "Vietnamization".69 He soon enacted phased U.S. troop withdrawals81 but authorized incursions into Laos in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail that passed through Laos and Cambodia. Nixon's 1968 campaign promise to curb the war and his subsequent Laos bombing raised questions in the press about a "credibility gap" similar to that encountered earlier in the war by Lyndon B. Johnson.81 In a televised speech on April 30 1970 Nixon announced the incursion of U.S. troops into Cambodia to disrupt so-called North Vietnamese sanctuaries. This led to protest and student strikes that temporarily closed 536 universities colleges and high schools.82 Nixon formed the Gates Commission to look into ending the military service draft83 implemented under President Johnson. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970 describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without conscription.84 The draft was extended to June 197385 and then ended. Military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers and television advertising for the United States Army began for the first time.86 In December 1972 though concerned about the level of civilian casualties Nixon approved Linebacker II the codename for aerial bombings of military and industrial targets in North Vietnam.87 After years of fighting the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973.88 The treaty however made no provision that 145000160000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the Central Highlands and other areas of S. Vietnam had to withdraw.80 Under President Nixon American involvement in the war steadily declined from a troop strength of 543000 to zero in 1973.69 Once American support was diminished in 1975 North Vietnam was able to conquer South Vietnam and formed one country. Economy Main article: Nixon Shock Under Nixon direct payments from the federal government to individual American citizens in government benefits (including Social Security and Medicare) rose from 6.3% of the Gross National Product (GNP) to 8.9%. Food aid and public assistance also rose beginning at $6.6 billion and escalating to $9.1 billion. Defense spending decreased from 9.1% to 5.8% of the GNP. The revenue sharing program pioneered by Nixon delivered $80 billion to individual states and municipalities.89 In 1970 the Democratic Congress passed the Economic Stabilization Act giving Nixon power to set wages and prices; Congress did not believe the president would use the new controls and felt this would make him appear to be indecisive.90 While opposed to permanent wage and price controls91 Nixon imposed the controls on a temporary basis92 in a 90 day wage and price freeze.93 The controls (enforced for large corporations voluntary for others) were the largest since World War II; they were relaxed after the initial 90 days.94 Nixon then spoke to the American public saying that by "Working together we will break the back of inflation."95 A Pay Board set wage controls limiting increases to 5.5% per year and the Price Commission set a 2.5% annual limit on price increases.96 The limits did help to control wages but not inflation.97 Overall however the controls were viewed as successful in the short term98 and were popular with the public who felt Nixon was rescuing them from price-gougers and from a foreign-caused exchange crisis.9499 Nixon was worried about the effects of increasing inflation and accelerating unemployment94 so he indexed Social Security for inflation and created Supplemental Security Income (SSI). In 1969 he had presented the only balanced budget between 1961 and 1998.100 However despite speeches declaring an opposition to the idea he decided to offer Congress a budget with deficit spending to reduce unemployment and declared "Now I am a Keynesian".94 Nixon in the Oval Office Another large part of Nixon's plan was the detachment of the dollar from the gold standard.93 By the time Nixon took office U.S. gold reserves had declined from $25 billion to $10.5 billion. Gold was an underpriced commodity as the dollar was overpriced as a currency. The United States was on the verge of running its first trade deficit in over 75 years.101 The price of gold had been set at $35 an ounce since the days of Franklin Roosevelt's presidency; foreign countries acquired more dollar reserves outnumbering the entire amount of gold the United States possessed. Nixon completely eradicated the gold standard preventing other countries from being able to claim gold in exchange for their dollar reserves but also weakening the exchange rate of the dollar against other currencies and increasing inflation by driving up the cost of imports.94 Nixon felt that the dollar should float freely like other currencies.102 Said Nixon in his speech: "The American dollar must never again be a hostage in the hands of international speculators.... Government... does not hold the key to the success of a people. That key... is in your hands. Every action I have taken tonight is designed to nurture and stimulate that competitive spirit to help us snap out of self-doubt the self-disparagement that saps our energy and erodes our confidence in ourselves... Whether the nation stays Number One depends on your competitive spirit your sense of personal destiny your pride in your country and yourself."103 Other parts of the Nixon plan included the reimposition of a 10% investment tax credit assistance to the automobile industry in the form of removal of excise taxes (provided the savings were passed directly to the consumer)102 an end to fixed exchange rates devaluation of the dollar on the free market and a 10% tax on all imports into the U.S.93 Income per family rose and unionization declined.93 Nixon wanted to lift the spirits of the country as polls showed increasing concern about the economy. His program was viewed by nearly everyone as exceptionally bold and astounded the Democrats.103 Nixon soon experienced a bounce in the polls.104 His economic program was determined to be a clear success by December 1971.105 One of Nixon's economic advisers Herbert Stein wrote: "Probably more new regulation was imposed on the economy during the Nixon administration than in any other presidency since the New Deal."94 Initiatives within the federal government Noam Chomsky remarked that in many respects Nixon was "the last liberal president."106 Indeed Nixon believed in using government wisely to benefit all and supported the idea of practical liberalism.107 Nixon initiated the Environmental Decade by signing the National Environmental Policy Act the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972 as well as establishing many government agencies. These included the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)94 and the Council on Environmental Quality.108 The Clean Air Act was noted as one of the most significant pieces of environmental legislation ever signed.109 In 1971 Nixon proposed the creation of four new government departments superseding the current structure: departments organized for the goal of efficient and effective public service as opposed to the thematic bases of Commerce Labor Transportation Agriculture et al. Departments including the State Treasury Defense and Justice would remain under this proposal.110 He reorganized the Post Office Department from a cabinet department to a government-owned corporation: the U.S. Postal Service. On June 17 1971 Nixon formally declared the U.S. War on Drugs.111 On October 30 1972 Nixon signed into law the Social Security Amendments of 1972 which included the creation of the Supplemental Security Income Program a Federal Welfare Program still in existence today. Nixon cut billions of dollars in federal spending and expanded the power of the Office of Management and Budget.112 He established the Consumer Product Safety Commission in 1972108 and supported the Legacy of parks program which transferred ownership of federally owned land to the states resulting in the establishment of state parks and beaches recreational areas and environmental education centers. Civil rights The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South.113 Strategically Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist George C. Wallace and liberal Democrats whose support of integration was alienating some Southern white Democrats.114 He was determined to implement exactly what the courts had ordereddesegregationbut did not favor busing children in the words of author Conrad Black "all over the country to satisfy the capricious meddling of judges."115 Nixon a Quaker felt that racism was the greatest moral failure of the United States116 and concentrated on the principle that the law must be color-blind: "I am convinced that while legal segregation is totally wrong forced integration of housing or education is just as wrong."117 Nixon tied desegregation to improving the quality of education116 and enforced the law after the Supreme Court in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education (1969) prohibited further delays. By the fall of 1970 two million southern black children had enrolled in newly created unitary fully integrated school districts; only 18% of Southern black children were still attending all-black schools a decrease from 70% when Nixon came to office.109 Nixon's Cabinet Committee on Education under the leadership of Labor Secretary George P. Shultz quietly set up local biracial committees to assure smooth compliance without violence or political grandstanding.118 "In this sense Nixon was the greatest school desegregator in American history" historian Dean Kotlowski concluded.119 Author Conrad Black concurred: "In his singular unsung way Richard Nixon defanged and healed one of the potentially greatest controversies of the time."120 Daniel Patrick Moynihan Nixon's presidential counselor commented in 1970 that There has been more change in the structure of American public school education in the last month than in the past 100 years.121 In addition to desegregating public schools Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan the first significant federal affirmative action program in 1970.122 Nixon also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification as a Constitutional amendment.123 Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968 though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election which led to a much stronger women's rights agenda. Nixon increased the number of female appointees to administration positions.124 Nixon signed the landmark laws Title IX in 1972 prohibiting gender discrimination in all federally funded schools and the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. In 1970 Nixon had vetoed the Comprehensive Child Development Act denouncing the universal child-care bill but signed into law Title X which was a step forward for family planning and contraceptives. It was during the Nixon Presidency that the Supreme Court issued its Roe v. Wade ruling legalizing abortion. First Lady Pat Nixon had been outspoken about her support for legalized abortion a goal for many feminists (though there was a significant pro-life minority faction of the Women's Liberation Movement as well). Nixon himself did not speak out publicly on the abortion issue but was personally pro-choice and believed that in certain cases such as rape abortion was an option.125 U.S. space program Nixon visits the Apollo 11 astronauts in quarantine aboard USS Hornet. Further information: Space policy of the United States In 1969 Nixon's first year in office the United States sent three manned missions to the moon becoming the only nation in the world to do so. On July 20 Nixon addressed Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin two of the astronauts live over radio during their historic Apollo 11 moonwalk. Nixon also placed a telephone call to Armstrong on the moon the longest distance phone call ever126 and called it "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House."127 He observed their landing in the ocean from the deck of the aircraft carrier USS Hornet.127 All U.S. Project Apollo moon landings and the attempted moon landing of Apollo 13 took place during Nixon's first term. On November 14 1969 he became the first incumbent president to attend a rocket launch Apollo 12. Nixon's signature is included on the plaque left by the Apollo 11 astronauts on the Moon in 1969.128 On January 5 1972 Nixon approved the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program129 a decision that profoundly influenced American efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter. Under the Nixon administration however NASA's budget declined.130 NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine was drawing up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon however rejected this proposal.131 On May 24 1972 Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program culminating in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project a joint-mission of an American Apollo and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in 1975.132 Indo-Pakistani War Main articles: Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War A conflict broke out in Pakistan in 1971 following independence demonstrations in East Pakistan; President Yahya Khan instructed the Pakistani Army to quell the riots resulting in widespread human rights abuses. President Nixon liked Yahya personally and credited him for helping to open a channel to China; accordingly he felt obligated to support him in the struggle.133 There were limits to how far the U.S. could associate itself with Pakistan however.133 American public opinion was concerned with the atrocities134 and the emigration of over 10 million people into India.133 Nixon relayed messages to Yahya urging him to restrain Pakistani forces.135 His objective was to prevent a war and safeguard Pakistan's interests though he feared an Indian invasion of West Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the sub-continent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union136 which had recently signed a cooperation treaty with India. Nixon felt that the Soviet Union was inciting the country.135 Nixon met with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and did not believe her assertion that she would not invade Pakistan.137 Having previously met her in 1969 he did not trust her and once referred to her as an "old witch".138139 On December 3 Yahya attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated pushing into East Pakistan.140 Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it140 because he favored a cease-fire.141 The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of military equipment from Iran Turkey and Jordan to Pakistan reimbursing those countries142 despite Congressional objections.143 A cease fire was reached on December 16 and Bangladesh was created.144 China Main article: 1972 Nixon visit to China President Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai upon arriving in Beijing Relations between the Western powers and Eastern Bloc changed dramatically in the early 1970s. In 1960 the People's Republic of China publicly split from its main ally the Soviet Union in the Sino-Soviet Split. As tension along the border between the two communist nations reached its peak in 1969 and 1970 Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War.145 Nixon had begun entreating China a mere month into office by sending covert messages of rapprochement through Nicolae Ceausescu of Romania146 and Yahya Khan of Pakistan147 in December 1970. He reduced many trade restrictions between the two countries and silenced anti-China voices within the White House. In April 1971 the Chinese table tennis team invited the American table tennis team to attend a demonstration competition for a week in China.148 The invitation came upon the order of Mao Zedong himself who had taken note of Nixon's "subtle overtures" to improve U.S.-Chinese relations including the conflict in Pakistan.148 This was significant in that the fifteen-member table tennis team were allowed to enter mainland China after a period of over twenty years in which Americans except on very rare occasions had been denied visas149 (the term "ping pong diplomacy" arose from this encounter).150 Chinese Premier Chou En-lai through Pakistani intermediaries had relayed a message to Nixon reading: "The Chinese government reaffirms its willingness to receive publicly in Peking a special envoy of the president of the United States or the U.S. secretary of state or even the president himself."151 Nixon sent then-National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to China in July 1971 to arrange a visit by the president and first lady.151 Soon the world was stunned to learn that Nixon intended to visit Communist China the following year.152 President Nixon greets Chinese Party Chairman Mao Zedong (left) in a historic visit to the People's Republic of China 1972. In February 1972 President and Mrs. Nixon traveled to China where the president was to engage in direct talks with Mao and Chou. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over forty hours in preparation.153 Upon touching down the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chou. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose: "Nixon knew that when his old friend John Foster Dulles had refused to shake the hand of Chou En-lai in Geneva in 1954 Chou had felt insulted. He knew too that American television cameras would be at the Beijing airport to film his arrival. A dozen times on the way to Peking Nixon told Kissinger and Secretary of State William Rogers that they were to stay on the plane until he had descended the gangway and shaken Zhou Enlai's hand. As added insurance a Secret Service agent blocked the aisle of Air Force One to make sure the president emerged alone."154 Over one hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders television was strongly favored over printed publications as it would capture the trip's visuals much better while snubbing the print journalists Nixon despised.154 Nixon and Kissinger were soon summoned to an hour-long meeting with Mao and Zhou at Mao's official private residence where they discussed a range of issues.155 Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon who was forthright unlike the leftists and the Soviets.155 He also said he was suspicious of Kissinger155 though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history."154 A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was conducted that evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day Nixon met with Chou; during this meeting he stated that he believed there is one China and Taiwan is a part of China.156157158 When not in meetings Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City Ming Tombs and the Great Wall.154 Americans received their first glance into China via Pat Nixon who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes schools factories and hospitals accompanied by the American media.154 The visit ushered in a new era of Sino-American relations.69 Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance the Soviet Union yielded to American pressure for dtente.159 Soviet Union Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following his successful visit to China the Nixon administration drew up plans for the president to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union the Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers Alexei Kosygin and Nikolai Podgorny the Soviet head of state among other leading Soviet officials.160 Nixon meets with Brezhnev during the Soviet Leader's trip to the U.S. in 1973 Nixon met with Soviet leader Brezhnev and engaged in intense negotiations regarding international issues160 with his Soviet counterpart.69 Out of this "summit meeting" came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers69 and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established groundbreaking new policy of dtente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Dtente would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would enjoy peaceful relations. A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin.160 Nixon extended the Nixon Doctrine from Vietnam to his policy toward the Soviet Union believing that helping Iran become stronger would check the Soviets' power.161 To win American friendship both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms.162163164 Nixon laid out his strategy: "I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist if possible the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and dtente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept."165 Having made great progress over the last two years in U.S.-Soviet relations Nixon planned a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974.166 He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony cheering crowds and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening.166 Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact dtente and MIRVs. While he considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty Nixon felt that it would take far too long to accomplish.166 There were not any significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.166 1972 presidential campaign Main article: United States presidential election 1972 Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5 1972 effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection.167 Largely assured the Republican nomination168 the President had expected his Democratic opponent to be Senator Ted Kennedy169 but Senator Edmund Muskie instead became the front runner with Senator George McGovern in a close second place.167 Though Muskie defeated McGovern in the New Hampshire primary his showings were poorer in Florida and he soon ended his campaign.168 Alabama Governor George Wallace entered the race as an Independent; popular in Florida he would create havoc among the Democrats and boost Nixon's campaign.170 Nixon campaigns during the 1972 presidential campaign Prominent issues of the early campaign included school busing and heated relations between the three branches of the government. Nixon addressed the nation on March 16 about the school busing issue reiterating that it was wrong to force a child onto a school bus and that busing lowered the quality of education.168 He announced the Equal Education Opportunities bill that would seek a moratorium on local school busing;171 the bill later passed. Vietnam was still ongoing though Nixon had reduced troop levels dramatically. On June 10 McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination.172 The following month Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive.173 Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle and was reelected on November 7 1972 in one of the largest landslide election victories in U.S. political history. He defeated McGovern with over 60% of the popular vote losing only in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.174 Nixon's victory made him the first former Vice President since Thomas Jefferson to win two terms as President. Nixon and Franklin Roosevelt are the only candidates in U.S. history to appear on five presidential tickets for a major party.175176 Second term (1973-1974) Nixon is sworn in for a second term in 1973 On October 10 1973 Vice President Agnew resigned amid charges of bribery tax evasion and money laundering from his tenure as Maryland's governor. Nixon chose Representative Gerald Ford Republican Minority Leader of the House of Representatives to replace Agnew.177 Continuation of economic changes After he won reelection Nixon found that inflation was increasing and the legislation authorizing price controls expired April 30 1973. The Senate Democratic Caucus recommended a 90-day freeze on all profits interest rates and prices.98 Nixon re-imposed price controls in June 1973 echoing his 1971 plan as food prices rose; this time he focused on agricultural exports and limited the freeze to 60 days.98 The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy.98 Business owners however now saw the controls as permanent rather than temporary and voluntary compliance decreased.98 The controls produced food shortages as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss.98 The controls were slowly ended and by April 30 1974 the control authority from Congress had lapsed.98 However the controls on oil and natural gas prices persisted for several years.94 Nixon also dramatically increased spending on federal employees' salaries while the economy was plagued by the 19731974 stock market crash.178 In his 1974 State of the Union address Nixon called for comprehensive health insurance.179 On February 6 1974 he introduced the Comprehensive Health Insurance Act. Nixon's plan would have mandated employers to purchase health insurance for their employees and in addition provided a federal health plan similar to Medicaid that any American could join by paying on a sliding scale based on income.179180181 The New York Daily News writes that Ted Kennedy rejected the universal health coverage plan offered by Nixon because it was not everything he wanted it to be. Kennedy later realized it was a missed opportunity to make major progress toward his goal.182 Yom Kippur War and 1973 oil crisis The Nixon administration supported Israel a powerful American ally in the Middle East during the Yom Kippur War. When an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria attacked in October 1973 Israel suffered initial losses and pressed European powers for help but (with the exception of the Netherlands) the Europeans responded with inaction. Nixon cut through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms. By the time the U.S. and the Soviet Union negotiated a truce Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. A long-term effect was the movement of Egypt away from the Soviets toward the U.S. But Israel's victory came at the cost to the U.S. of the 1973 oil crisis; the members of OPEC decided to raise oil prices in response to the American support of Israel.183 After Nixon chose to go off the gold standard foreign countries increased their currency reserves in anticipation of currency fluctuation which caused deflation of the dollar and other world currencies. Since oil was paid for in dollars OPEC was receiving less value for their product. They cut production and announced price hikes as well as an embargo targeted against the United States and the Netherlands specifically blaming U.S. support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War for the actions.184 On January 2 1974 Nixon signed a bill that lowered the maximum U.S. speed limit to 55 miles per hour (88.5 km/h) to conserve gasoline during the crisis.185 This law was repealed in 1995 though states had been allowed to raise the limit to 65 miles per hour in rural areas since 1987.186187 Watergate Main article: Watergate scandal Nixon bids farewell to his staff August 9 1974 as First Lady Pat Nixon and the rest of his family look on. The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of illegal and secret activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. The activities became known in the aftermath of five men being caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C. on June 17 1972. The Washington Post picked up on the story while reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an FBI informant known as "Deep Throat" to link the men to the Nixon White House. This became one of a series of scandalous acts involving the Committee to Re-Elect the President. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics and his White House denounced the story as biased and misleading. As the FBI eventually confirmed that Nixon aides had attempted to sabotage the Democrats many began resigning and senior aides faced prosecution.188 Nixon's alleged role in ordering a cover-up came to light after the testimony of John Dean. In July 1973 White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. Unlike the tape recordings by earlier Presidents Nixon's were subpoenaed. The White House refused to release them citing executive privilege. A tentative deal was reached in which the White House would provide written summaries of the tapes but this was rejected by Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox a former member of the Kennedy administration. Cox was fired at the White House's request and was replaced by Leon Jaworski a former member of the Johnson administration. Jaworski revealed an audio tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20 1972 which featured an unexplained 18 minute gap.189 The first deleted section of about five minutes has been attributed to human error by Rose Mary Woods the President's personal secretary who admitted accidentally wiping the section while transcribing the tape. The gap while not conclusive proof of wrong-doing by the President cast doubt on Nixon's claim that he was unaware of the cover-up.190 Nixon displays the V-for-victory sign as he departs the White House for the final time. Though Nixon lost much popular support including from some in his own party he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office.189 He insisted that he had made mistakes but had no prior knowledge of the burglary did not break any laws and did not learn of the coverup until early 1973.191 On November 17 1973 during a televised question and answer session with the press190 Nixon said People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got.192 Richard Nixon's resignation speech Resignation speech of President Richard Nixon delivered August 8 1974. Problems listening to this file See media help. In April 1974 Nixon announced the release of 1200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides. Despite this the House Judiciary Committee controlled by Democrats opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9 1974. These hearings resulted in bi-partisan votes for Articles of Impeachment the first vote being 2711 in favor on July 27 1974 on obstruction of justice.191 On July 24 the Supreme Court (including 5 Republican-appointed Justices three of them appointed by Nixon) then ruled unanimously in the case of United States v. Nixon that the tapes must be released to Jaworski; one of the secret recordings known as the Smoking Gun tape was released on August 5 1974 and revealed that Nixon knew of the cover-up from its inception and had suggested to administration officials that they try to stop the FBI's investigation.190 Resignation In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of impeachment Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9 1974 after addressing the nation on television the previous evening.191 The resignation speech was delivered on August 8 1974 at 9:01 pm Eastern time from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. The core of the speech was Nixon's announcement that Gerald Ford as Vice President would succeed to the presidency effective at noon Eastern time the next day. Around this announcement he discussed his feelings about his presidential work and general political issues that would need attention once he left. He never admitted to criminal wrongdoing although he conceded errors of judgment. During the Watergate scandal Nixon's approval rating fell to 23%.193 On May 28 2009 speaking to Republicans in Litchfield Beach South Carolina Ed Nixon said that his brother did not resign "in disgrace" but "resigned in honor. It was a disappointment to him because his missions were cut short." He also said that his brother "held the office of president in high regard."194 Judicial appointments The highlighted countries are those visited by Richard Nixon during his presidency. He was the first president to visit many high profile countries. Nixon appointed the following justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice in 1969 Harry Andrew Blackmun in 1970 Lewis Franklin Powell Jr. in 1972 and William Rehnquist later that year. Along with his four Supreme Court appointments Nixon appointed 46 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals and 181 judges to the United States district courts. Nixon formally nominated one person Charles A. Bane for a federal appellate judgeship who was never confirmed. Pardons Further information: List of people pardoned or granted clemency by a United States president Nixon issued 926 pardons or commutations.195 Among notable cases were labor leader Jimmy Hoffa (sentence commuted on condition)196 and mobster Angelo DeCarlo (convicted of extortion; served one and a half years; pardoned because of poor health). DeCarlo's pardon was later investigated but no evidence was found of corruption. During his presidency Nixon decided to grant clemency in over 20% of requests.197 Later life Pardon and illness Following his resignation the Nixons returned to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente California.198 Nixon was said to be in seclusion for a number of days in his home first experiencing shock and later persistent sadness.199 On September 8 1974 Ford granted him a "full free and absolute pardon". This ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement: I was wrong in not acting more decisively and forthrightly in dealing with Watergate... No words can describe the depths of my regret and pain at the anguish of my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and presidency a nation I so deeply love and an institution I so greatly respect.200 Within one month Ford's approval rating dropped from 71% to 49%.201 Nixon later told a former aide that he felt he was chased out of office by "the establishment" in Washington and leftist elements in the media as they considered him a mortal threat to their domination of national affairs.202 As a result of Watergate Nixon was disbarred by the state of New York. He had attempted to resign his license but the state refused to let him do so unless he admitted wrongdoing in Watergate.203 He later resigned his other law licenses including one in California.204 The evening of the pardon Nixon experienced great pain in his lower left abdomen and his left leg had swollen to three times its normal size.205 It was determined that phlebitis a condition which had afflicted Nixon the previous June had recurred.206 Told that he would surely die if he did not go to a hospital Nixon was taken to Long Beach Memorial Hospital.207 It was discovered that a clot from his leg had broken off and traveled to his lung; to treat this he was placed on an anti-coagulant intravenous machine.207 While Nixon was hospitalized Watergate special prosecutor Leon Jaworski subpoenaed him to testify before a trial regarding Watergate.208 Nixon's doctor John Lungren said that Nixon could not sustain a flight to Washington because of his condition because he needed to avoid being seated for prolonged periods. Nixon was released from the hospital on October 4 and soon filed a motion requesting the judge to revoke the subpoena209 which was rejected.210 Dr Lungren filed an affidavit arguing that the well-being of the former president might be compromised by forcing him to appear at the trial.211 On October 23 Nixon was taken back to the hospital after a recurrence of swelling. Doctors found serious vascular blockages and a danger of gangrene; it was feared that blood clots might break loose and travel to his heart or brain with lethal consequences. An eighteen-inch blood clot was found in a vein leading to Nixon's heart. Surgery was deemed necessary for his survival; he underwent a ninety-minute operation on October 29.212 While recuperating Nixon fainted fell out of bed and fell into a coma. He underwent four blood transfusions in three hours and suffered severe internal bleeding along with hypotension. His family stayed by his side while he was visited by Ford and telephoned by Mao Zedong.213 He returned home on November 14. Three leading doctors sent by the judge in the Watergate trial evaluated Nixon's condition and concluded that he was not able to testify. The judge ruled that his testimony would not be necessary.214 Nixon joins Presidents Ronald Reagan Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter at the White House 1981 By early 1975 Nixon's mental and physical health was improving. He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards from his home first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs.215 Nixon traveled extensively both domestically and internationally. He was a frequent CB Radio user which Nixon was not allowed to use while in the White House for security reasons. He took trips to Europe the Middle East the Soviet Union Africa and Asia.198 At the invitation of Mao Zedong Nixon traveled to China in February 1976. His trip was initially criticized including by some within his own party who argued that citizen-Nixon was conducting U.S. foreign policy. The well-publicized trip was deemed a success however; upon his return Nixon prepared a lengthy memorandum on his experiences that was sent to the White House.216 He would visit China four more times. Rehabilitation By 1977 Nixon began forming a public-relations comeback effort. In August of that year he met with British talk-show host and producer David Frost who paid him $600000 for a series of sit-down interviews.217 They began on the topic of foreign policy recounting the leaders he had known but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted that he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And I guess if I'd been in their position I'd have done the same thing."218 Nixon did not admit to criminal wrongdoing denied criminal intent and denied authorizing payment to the burglars as an incentive for them not to reveal information.219 He was criticized at the time by somewho who opined that he should not be giving information to Frost that he had declined to give to federal courts.220 Nonetheless the interviews became well known and were viewed widely across the world218 garnering between 45 and 50 million viewers and making them the most watched interviews in the history of television.221 The encounters were the subject of the 2006 play Frost/Nixon which became a 2008 film. He soon published his memoirs RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon and a second book The Real War. These were the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement198 and their respective releases enabled Nixon to further his comeback effort by partaking in book tours. The Nixons moved to New York City in February 1980 to be closer to their family. When the former Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980 Nixon defied President Jimmy Carter's State Department by attending the funeral.222 He supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980 making numerous television appearances portraying himself as in biographer Steven Ambrose's words "the senior statesman above the fray."223 He wrote guest articles for numerous publications and participated in many television interviews.224 After 18 months in the New York City townhouse Nixon and his wife moved to Saddle River New Jersey in 1981.198 Throughout the 1980s Nixon maintained a routine schedule of speaking engagements and writing198 traveled and met with many foreign leaders especially those of Third World countries. He joined former Presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat.198 On a trip to the Middle East Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya which attracted significant U.S. media attention; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation."225 He later embarked on journeys to Japan China and the Soviet Union.198 On his return from the Soviet Union Nixon sent President Ronald Reagan a lengthy memorandum that contained foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Mikhail Gorbachev.198 Following this trip Nixon was ranked in Gallup's most admired man and woman poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world.226 Elder statesman In 1986 Nixon gave an address to a convention of newspaper publishers impressing his audience with his tour d'horizon of the world.227 Author Elizabeth Drew wrote that "even when he was wrong Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times."227 Newsweek among other publications226 ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back."227 He gained respect as an elder statesman198 in the area of foreign affairs being consulted by both Republican and Democratic successors to the presidency; Reagan sought Nixon's advice in dealing with Gorbachev.228 Richard and Pat Nixon in 1990 On July 19 1990 the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda California opened as a private institution with Nixon and Pat in attendance. They were joined by a throng of people including Gerald Ford Reagan and George H. W. Bush and their spouses Betty Nancy and Barbara respectively.229 The property was owned and operated by the Richard Nixon Foundation and was not part of the National Archives' presidential libraries system until July 11 2007 when the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum was officially welcomed into the federal presidential library system. In January 1991 the former president founded the Nixon Center a policy think tank and conference center.230 Pat Nixon died on June 22 1993 of health problems including emphysema and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace during the week leading up to her burial on June 26. Richard Nixon was deeply distraught and broke down in convulsive sobs for the only time in his adult life.231 Inside the building he delivered a tribute to her.231 Nixon was comforted by his family while former presidents Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan and their wives attended the ceremony.232233 Some commented that without Pat Nixon would not "last a year."231 Death and funeral Main article: Death and funeral of Richard Nixon Nixon suffered a severe stroke at 5:45 pm EDT on April 18 1994 while preparing to eat dinner in his Park Ridge New Jersey home.234 It was determined that a blood clot resulting from his heart condition had formed in his upper heart then broken off and traveled to his brain. He was taken to New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg.234 Damage to the brain caused swelling (cerebral edema) and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. On April 22 1994 he died at 9:08 pm with his daughters at his bedside; he was 81.234 Nixon's funeral took place on April 27 1994 the first for an American president since that of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973 which Nixon had presided over as president. Held at the Nixon Library eulogists included then-President Bill Clinton former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole California Governor Pete Wilson and the Reverend Billy Graham.235 Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford Carter Reagan George H. W. Bush and their respective first ladies.236 Nixon was buried beside Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters Tricia and Julie and four grandchildren.234 In keeping with his wishes his funeral was not a full state funeral though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral services.237 Despite heavy rain police estimated that roughly 50000 people waited in lines up to 18 hours to file past the casket and pay their respects.238 Legacy The graves of President Richard and first lady Pat Nixon. No other American has held office in the executive branch of the federal government as long as Richard Nixon did.239 He is the only person in American history to appear on the Republican Party's presidential ticket five times to secure the Republican nomination for president three times and to have been elected twice to both the vice presidency and the presidency. With Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush Richard Nixon was the chief builder of the modern Republican party. From 1952 to 1992 at least one of these three men appeared on the Republican ticket for nine of the eleven presidential elections. Throughout his career he was instrumental in moving the party away from the control of isolationists and as a Congressman was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet Communism.239 Although he did not achieve all that he had wished for in the Middle East Nixon virtually expelled the Soviet Union from the region and initiated a long peace process.240 He began formal relations with China and improved relations with the Soviet Union. Domestically he decentralized government by revenue sharing greatly reduced segregation in schools reduced inflation (until it rose again as a result of the oil cartels) ended the gold standard reduced the crime rate and pioneered positive environmental measures.240 As a result of the Watergate scandal however the mood of the nation was severely affected and the office of the presidency was demeaned.240 Though often referred to as a conservative in politics because of his "Southern strategy" and his victory in numerous southern states in 1968 Nixon had a considerable share of detractors on the right of the political spectrum. Columnist George Will questioned Nixon's conservatism citing the wage-and-price controls as "the largest peacetime intrusion of government in the economy in American history surpassing even the dreams of the New Dealers".241 Personality and public image Nixon meets Elvis Presley in December 1970 "The President & The King." Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated Nixon's appearance and mannerisms to the point where the line between the human and the caricature version of him became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls slumped shoulders and a furrowed sweaty brow.242 Nixon had a complex personality both very secretive and awkward yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects always wearing a coat and tie even when home alone.243 He advised people not to care about what others thought of them. Some experts have described him as having a narcissistic and paranoid personality.244 Conrad Black described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways."245 According to Black Nixon "thought that he was doomed to be traduced double-crossed unjustly harassed misunderstood underappreciated and subjected to the trials of Job but that by the application of his mighty will tenacity and diligence he would ultimately prevail."246 Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a "smart talented man but most peculiar and haunted of presidents."247 In his account of the Nixon presidency author Richard Reeves described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness who functioned best alone with his thoughts".248 Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality Reeves argues: "He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them. ... He clung to the idea of being 'tough'. He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness".249 Wichita Police Chief Rick Stone and Richard Nixon 1992 After the presidency Nixon often traveled around the country meeting local officials and giving speeches to groups large and small. Nixon frequently brandished the two-finger V sign (alternately viewed as the "Victory sign" or "peace sign") using both hands an act that became one of his best-known trademarks.250 James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic President so brilliant and so morally lacking"251 George McGovern Nixon's former opponent commented in 1983 "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers China and the Soviet Union than any other president since World War II... I think with the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam Nixon really will get high marks in history."252 Former president Harry Truman had a low regard for Nixon stating in 1961: "Nixon is a shifty-eyed goddamn liar and the people know it."253 In 1968 he added "He's one of the few in the history of this country to run for high office talking out of both sides of his mouth at the same time and lying out of both sides."254255 Martha Mitchell the outspoken wife of Nixon's Attorney-General John Mitchell said of Nixon in 1973 "He bleeds people. He draws every drop of blood and then drops them from a cliff. He'll blame any person he can put his foot on."256 In October 1999 a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes were released which contained multiple statements made by then-President Nixon to his staff and advisors which have been deemed by some authors to be derogatory towards Jews.257 In one conversation with H.R. Haldeman Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal" making exceptions for some of his top aides. He then added"But Bob generally speaking you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right"258 Nixon also drew connections between Jews and the Communist conspiracy declaring "the only two non-Jews in the Communist conspiracy were Whitaker Chambers and Alger Hiss... The only two non-Jews. Every other one was a Jew. And it raised hell with us."259 Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings Nixon denies being anti-Semitic saying "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be anti-Semitic I did... And I'm not you know what I mean"258 In popular culture Nixon has been portrayed in multiple TV shows films260 plays audio recordings. In 1987 an opera Nixon In China by composer John Adams with a libretto by Alice Goodman premiered at the Houston Grand Opera featuring baritone James Maddalena in the title role and tenor John Duykers as Mao Tse-tung261 In Oliver Stone's 1995 biopic Nixon he was played by Anthony Hopkins262 The film was denounced by Richard Nixon's daughters.263 In the 1999 movie comedy Dick the Nixon character is played by Dan Hedaya. One memorable scene has the Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev characters bonding while eating homemade cookies that are unknown to Nixon and Brezhnev laced with marijuana. In the 2006 London and 2007 Broadway premieres of the play Frost/Nixon he was played by Frank Langella who also played him in the play's 2008 movie adaptation264 In the film Secret Honor directed by Robert Altman he was played by Philip Baker Hall265 Portrayed favourably in the song "The Love of Richard Nixon" by Manic Street Preachersa Welsh rock trio whose members were all age five at the time of Nixon's resignation. Nixon's head is a recurring character in Futurama an animated TV series set on Earth in the 31st century. In the show's universe the heads of numerous celebrities and political leaders including all U.S. Presidents are kept alive in jars. Nixon made his first appearance in the pilot episode "Space Pilot 3000" and was elected President of Earth in the second-season episode "A Head in the Polls". Stuart Milligan portrayed Nixon in the 2011 Doctor Who episodes The Impossible Astronaut and Day of the Moon which took place in 1969 in the months leading to the Apollo 11 launch. His likeness appears in the video game Call of Duty: Black Ops during the "Zombie Mode 'Five'" a single-player or cooperative mode where four players incarnate Nixon Kennedy Fidel Castro or Robert McNamara.266 He is voiced by Dave Mallow.267 He is portrayed in DC Comics' Watchmen Superman: Red Son and DC: The New Frontier. See also Samuel Byck assassination planner Bibliography Further information: Richard Nixon bibliography Notes Goldwater Barry and Jack Casserly (1988) p. 353. "Richard M. Nixon Birthplace". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/presidents/nixonbirthplace.html. Retrieved January 14 2009.  Ferris Gary W. (1999) p. 209 a b Black Conrad (2007) p. 8 "Childhood". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library. http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php. 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Black Conrad (2007) p. 46. "Commander Richard M. Nixon USNR". Naval Historical Center. United States Department of the Navy. August 7 2006. http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm. Retrieved December 14 2008.  Black Conrad (2007) pp. 5860. Black Conrad (2007) p. 60. a b Black Conrad (2007) p. 62. Black Conrad (2007) pp. 6263. a b c d e f "The Congressman". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library. http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php. Retrieved July 18 2008.  Scherer Michael; Michael Weisskopf (July 2 2008). "Candidates' Vices: Craps and Poker". Time. http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/08599181989800.html. Retrieved September 30 2008.  Ambrose Stephen E. (1987) Nixon: the Education of a Politician 19131962 New York: Simon and Schuster p.118. Act of June 23 1947 Pub. L. No. 80-101 61 Stat. 136 Black Conrad (2007) pp. 129135 Chambers Whittaker (1952). Witness. New York: Random House. p. 799. 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(1991) p. 534 Ambrose Steven E. (1991) p. 540 Ambrose Steven E. (1991) p. 545 a b Drew Elizabeth (2007) p. 142 a b c Drew Elizabeth (2007) p. 144 Black Conrad (2007) p. 1039 "The Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace Foundation: Museum store". http://www.nixonfoundation.org/index.phpsrcdirectory&srctypedisplay&id831&viewproductsdetail.  McGann James G. (2007) (PDF). The Global "Go-To Think Tanks": The Leading Public Policy Research Organizations in the World. Foreign Policy Research Institute. p. 18. http://www.fpri.org/research/thinktanks/mcgann.globalgotothinktanks.pdf. Retrieved September 29 2008.  a b c Black Conrad (2007) p. 1049-1050 New York Times (June 23 1993) "Pat Nixon Dies of Lung Cancer at age 81" pg. 1 "Funeral Services of Mrs. Nixon". Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace Foundation. 2005. http://www.nixonfoundation.org/index.phpsrcgendocs&linkPNfuneral. Retrieved October 2 2007.  a b c d Weil Martin and Eleanor Randolph (April 23 1994). "Richard M. Nixon 37th President Dies". The Washington Post: p. A01. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/06/11/AR2005112200809.html. Retrieved July 18 2008.  "Funeral Services of President Nixon". Richard Nixon Library Foundation. http://www.nixonlibraryfoundation.org/index.phpsrcgendocs&linkRNfuneral. Retrieved July 18 2008. dead link "Nixon Funeral-1994". The New York Times. http://www.nytstore.com/ProdDetail.aspxprodId1579. Retrieved July 18 2008. dead link "Reagan funeral: Schedule of events". BBC. June 11 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3783085.stm. Retrieved July 18 2008.  "Funeral Services of President Nixon". Richard Nixon Foundation. http://www.nixonlibraryfoundation.org/index.phpsrcgendocs&linkRNfuneral. Retrieved August 21 2009. dead link a b Black Conrad (2007) p. 1053 a b c Black Conrad (2007) p. 1054" Will George F. (March 9 1992). "Vacuum Vs. Resentment". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/1992/03/08/vacuum-vs-resentment.html. Retrieved June 23 2010.  Reeves Richard (2002). President Nixon: Alone in the White House. Simon & Schuster. pp. 28183. ISBN 978-0743227193.  Drew Elizabeth (2007) p. 150 Ingall Michael A (Fall 1996). "Book Review: Nixon: A Psychobiography by Vamik D. Volkan Norman Itzkowitz and Andrew W. Dod". The Review of Arts Literature Philosophy and the Humanities XII (3). http://www.ralphmag.org/nixon.html. Retrieved April 4 2006.  Black Conrad (2007) p. 574 Black Conrad (2007) p. 700. Drew Elizabeth (2007) p. 151 Richard Reeves: President Nixon. Alone in the White House. New York Simon& Schuster. 2007 p. 12. Richard Reeves: President Nixon. Alone in the White House. New York Simon& Schuster. 2007 p. 13 Lowy Johnathan (October 14 2001). "Far Too Strange for Fiction: Nixon Tormented Tragic Hero". The New York Observer. http://www.observer.com/node/45098. Retrieved January 20 2009.  Skidmore Max J (2001). "Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt". White House Studies 1 (4): 495ff.  Greider William (November 10 1983). "The McGovern factor". Rolling Stone: 13.  "HISTORICAL NOTES: Giving Them More Hell". TIME. December 3 1973. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171908217-200.html#ixzz13ilQxSE9. Retrieved November 4 2010.  "Calling someone a liar isn't new but Wilson set a new standard McClatchy". Mcclatchydc.com. http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2009/09/10/75213/calling-someone-a-liar-isnt-new.html. Retrieved November 4 2010.  Presidential voices: speaking styles ... - Google Books. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/booksidDh0wM9DNjbAC&pgPA89&lpgPA89&dqnixon+truman+He's+one+of+the+few+in+the+history+of+this+country+to+run+for+high+office+talking+out+of+both+sides+of+his+mouth+at+the+same+time+and+lying+out+of+both+sides.&sourcebl&ots1cAeZij0a6&sig2hieiPIwkqj8MIB97mM0ToZGHkQ&hlen&eixpLPTPKxDYW0sAPAl9HsAg&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum7&ved0CDAQ6AEwBg#vonepage&qnixon%20truman%20He's%20one%20of%20the%20few%20in%20the%20history%20of%20this%20country%20to%20run%20for%20high%20office%20talking%20out%20of%20both%20sides%20of%20his%20mouth%20at%20the%20same%20time%20and%20lying%20out%20of%20both%20sides.&ffalse. Retrieved November 4 2010.  "Martha Mitchell Quotes". Quotes.net. http://www.quotes.net/authors/Martha+Mitchell. Retrieved November 4 2010.  "New Tapes Reveal Depth of Nixon's Anti-Semitism". Washingtonpost.com. October 6 1999. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/oct99/nixon6.htm. Retrieved April 4 2011.  a b Timothy Noah (October 7 1999). "Nixon: I Am Not an Anti-Semite - Timothy Noah". Slate Magazine. http://www.slate.com/id/1003783. Retrieved November 4 2010.  Molotsky Irvin (October 7 1999). "In 1971 Tapes Nixon Is Heard Blaming Jews for Communist Plots". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/07/us/in-1971-tapes-nixon-is-heard-blaming-jews-for-communist-plots.html. Retrieved December 2 2010.  Richard Nixon (Character) Frankel Max (February 10 2011). "Nixon in China' Compared With History". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/13/arts/music/13nixon.html.  Nixon (1995) - IMDb "Reaction by Nixon's Family.". imdb.com. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0113987/triviatrtr0565299. Retrieved November 3 2011.  Frost/Nixon (2008) - IMDb Secret Honor (1984) - IMDb 1dead link Dave Mallow - IMDb References Aitken Jonathan (1996). Nixon: A Life. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0895267209.  Ambrose Steven E (1991). Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 19731990. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69188-0.  Black Conrad (2007). Richard M. Nixon: A life in Full. New York NY: PublicAffairs Books. ISBN 1586485199.  Blythe Will (2006). To Hate Like This is to be Happy Forever. New York NY: Harper Collins.  Boger John Charles (2005). School Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back. UNC Press. ISBN 0807856134.  Dallek Robert (2007). Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power. HarperCollins.  Drew Elizabeth (2007). Richard M. Nixon. The American Presidents Series (1st ed.). Macmillan.  Eisenhower Dwight D. (1965). The White House Years: Waging Peace 19561961. Doubleday and Co..  Ferris Gary W (1999). Presidential Places: A Guide to the Historic Sites of the U.S. Presidents. John F. Blair. ISBN 0895871769.  Foner Eric (2006). Give Me Liberty!: An American History. 2. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-3939-2784-9.  Frum David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465041957.  Gaddis John Lewis (1982). Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195030974.  Garthoff Raymond L. (1985). Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Revised ed.). Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution.  Goldwater Barry and Jack Casserly (1988). Goldwater (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. OCLC 7353825.  Griffith Robert K.; Robert K. Griffith Jr. John Wyndham Mountcastle (1997). U.S. Army's Transition to the All-volunteer Force 18681974. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 0788178644.  Guan Ang Cheng (2003). Ending the Vietnam War: The Vietnamese Communists' Perspective. RoutledgeCurzon.  Hetzel Robert L. (2008). The Monetary Policy of the Federal Reserve. Cambridge University Press.  Hove Duane T. (2003). American Warriors: Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of WWII. Burd Street Press. ISBN 1-57249-307-0.  Kaufman Victor S. (2001). Confronting Communism: U.S. and British Policies toward China. University of Missouri Press.  Kirkpatrick Rob (2009). 1969: The Year Everything Changed. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1602393660.  Kotlowski Dean J. (2001). Nixon's Civil Rights: Politics Principle and Policy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00623-2.  Nixon Richard (1978). RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon. Simon & Schuster.  Nixon Richard (1987). No More Vietnams. Arbor House Publishing. ISBN 0-87795-668-5.  Parmet Herbert S (1990). Richard Nixon and His America. Boston: Little Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-69232-8.  Schulzinger Robert D. (2003). A Companion to American Foreign Relations. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405149868.  Tahir-Kheli Shirin (1982). The United States and Pakistan: the Evolution of an Influence Relationship. New York: Praeger.  Thornton Richard C. (1989). The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping Americans Foreign Policy. New York: Paragon House. OCLC 20453666.  Zhai Qiang. China and the Vietnam Wars 19501975. UNC Press.  Information on SS Amendments of 1970 and 1972 External links Find more about Richard Nixon on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Richard Nixon Foundation The Nixon Center Washington D.C. Richard Nixon Presidential Library White House biography Richard Nixon: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress The Watergate Tapes Nixon's will Appearances on C-SPAN Richard Nixon at the Internet Movie Database Richard Nixon at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Works by or about Richard Nixon in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Works by Richard Nixon at Project Gutenberg Richard Nixon collected news and commentary at The New York Times The Nixon-Presley Meeting at The National Security Archive Authority control: LCCN: n79018757 Political offices Preceded by Lyndon B. Johnson President of the United States January 20 1969  August 9 1974 Succeeded by Gerald Ford Preceded by Alben W. Barkley Vice President of the United States January 20 1953  January 20 1961 Succeeded by Lyndon B. Johnson United States Senate Preceded by Sheridan Downey United States Senator (Class 3) from California December 1 1950  January 20 1953 Served alongside: William F. Knowland Succeeded by Thomas Kuchel United States House of Representatives Preceded by Jerry Voorhis Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 12th congressional district January 3 1947  December 1 1950 Succeeded by Patrick J. Hillings Party political offices Preceded by Barry Goldwater Republican Party presidential candidate 1968 1972 Succeeded by Gerald Ford Preceded by William F. Knowland Republican Party nominee for Governor of California 1962 Succeeded by Ronald Reagan Preceded by Dwight D. Eisenhower Republican Party presidential candidate 1960 Succeeded by Barry Goldwater Preceded by Earl Warren Republican Party vice presidential candidate 1952 1956 Succeeded by Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Honorary titles Preceded by Lyndon B. Johnson Oldest U.S. President still living January 22 1973  January 20 1981 Succeeded by Ronald Reagan v d eRichard Nixon Life and politics Birthplace and boyhood home  Checkers speech  Kitchen Debate  Nixon Presidential library  Nixon Center  "La Casa Pacifica"  Death and funeral Presidency Economic policies  Vietnam War  "Peace With Honor"  Silent majority  Cold War period  Nixon Doctrine  "Bring Us Together"  Visit to China  Dtente  Linkage  Watergate  Resignation  Judicial appointments Popular culture Nixon mask  Nixon  Frost/Nixon  "Nixon in China"  Nixon in film and TV Books Six Crises  RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (autobiography)  No More Vietnams  Biographical works Elections 1946 / 1948 (House)  1950 (Senate)  1952 / 1956 (Vice Presidency)  1962 (Governor)  1960 / 1968 / 1972 (Presidency) Family Thelma "Pat" Ryan Nixon (wife)  Tricia Nixon Cox (daughter)  Julie Nixon Eisenhower (daughter)  Frank Nixon (father)  Hannah Nixon (mother) v d ePresidents of the United States George Washington  John Adams  Thomas Jefferson  James Madison  James Monroe  John Quincy Adams  Andrew Jackson  Martin Van Buren  William Henry Harrison  John Tyler  James K. 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Morton  Adlai E. Stevenson I  Garret Hobart  Theodore Roosevelt  Charles W. Fairbanks  James S. Sherman  Thomas R. Marshall  Calvin Coolidge  Charles G. Dawes  Charles Curtis  John Nance Garner  Henry A. Wallace  Harry S. Truman  Alben W. Barkley  Richard Nixon  Lyndon B. Johnson  Hubert Humphrey  Spiro Agnew  Gerald Ford  Nelson Rockefeller  Walter Mondale  George H. W. Bush  Dan Quayle  Al Gore  Dick Cheney  Joe Biden v d eCabinet of President Dwight D. Eisenhower (19531961) Vice President Richard Nixon (19531961) Secretary of State John Foster Dulles (19531959) Christian A. Herter (19591961) Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson (19531957) Neil H. McElroy (19571959) Thomas S. Gates Jr. (19591961) Secretary of the Treasury George M. Humphrey (19531957) Robert Bernard Anderson (19571961) Attorney General Herbert Brownell Jr. (19531957) William P. Rogers (19571961) Postmaster General Arthur Summerfield (19531961) Secretary of the Interior Douglas McKay (19531956) Fred Andrew Seaton (19561961) Secretary of the Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson (19531961) Secretary of Commerce Sinclair Weeks (19531958) Lewis Strauss (19581959) Frederick H. Mueller (19591961) Secretary of Labor Martin P. Durkin (1953) James P. Mitchell (19531961) Secretary of Health Education and Welfare Oveta Culp Hobby (19531955) Marion B. Folsom (19551958) Arthur S. Flemming (19581961) v d eRepublican Party Chairpersons of the RNC Morgan  Raymond  Ward  Claflin  Morgan  Chandler  Cameron  Jewell  Sabin  Jones  Quay  Clarkson  Carter  Hanna  Payne  Cortelyou  New  Hitchcock  Hill  Rosewater  Hilles  Wilcox  Hays  Adams  Butler  Work  Huston  Fess  Sanders  Fletcher  Hamilton  Martin  Walsh  Spangler  Brownell  Reece  Scott  Gabrielson  Summerfield  Roberts  Hall  Alcorn  T. B. Morton  Miller  Burch  Bliss  R. Morton  Dole  Bush  Smith  Brock  Richards  Fahrenkopf  Atwater  Yeutter  Bond  Barbour  Nicholson  Gilmore  Racicot  Gillespie  Mehlman  Duncan  Steele  Priebus Presidential tickets Frmont/Dayton  Lincoln/Hamlin  Lincoln/Johnson  Grant/Colfax  Grant/Wilson  Hayes/Wheeler  Garfield/Arthur  Blaine/Logan  Harrison/Morton  Harrison/Reid  McKinley/Hobart  McKinley/Roosevelt  Roosevelt/Fairbanks  Taft/Sherman/Butler  Hughes/Fairbanks  Harding/Coolidge  Coolidge/Dawes  Hoover/Curtis  Landon/Knox  Willkie/McNary  Dewey/Bricker  Dewey/Warren  Eisenhower/Nixon  Nixon/Lodge  Goldwater/Miller  Nixon/Agnew  Ford/Dole  Reagan/G.H.W. Bush  G.H.W. Bush/Quayle  Dole/Kemp  G.W. Bush/Cheney  McCain/Palin Parties by state and territory State Alabama  Alaska  Arizona  Arkansas  California  Colorado  Connecticut  Delaware  Florida  Georgia  Hawaii  Idaho  Illinois  Indiana  Iowa  Kansas  Kentucky  Louisiana  Maine  Maryland  Massachusetts  Michigan  Minnesota  Mississippi  Missouri  Montana  Nebraska  Nevada  New Hampshire  New Jersey  New Mexico  New York  North Carolina  North Dakota  Ohio  Oklahoma  Oregon  Pennsylvania  Rhode Island  South Carolina  South Dakota  Tennessee  Texas  Utah  Vermont  Virginia  Washington  West Virginia  Wisconsin  Wyoming Territory District of Columbia  Guam  Northern Mariana Islands  Puerto Rico  Virgin Islands Conventions (List) 1856 (Philadelphia)  1860 (Chicago)  1864 (Baltimore)  1868 (Chicago)  1872 (Philadelphia)  1876 (Cincinnati)  1880 (Chicago)  1884 (Chicago)  1888 (Chicago)  1892 (Minneapolis)  1896 (Saint Louis)  1900 (Philadelphia)  1904 (Chicago)  1908 (Chicago)  1912 (Chicago)  1916 (Chicago)  1920 (Chicago)  1924 (Cleveland)  1928 (Kansas City)  1932 (Chicago)  1936 (Cleveland)  1940 (Philadelphia)  1944 (Chicago)  1948 (Philadelphia)  1952 (Chicago)  1956 (San Francisco)  1960 (Chicago)  1964 (San Francisco)  1968 (Miami Beach)  1972 (Miami Beach)  1976 (Kansas City)  1980 (Detroit)  1984 (Dallas)  1988 (New Orleans)  1992 (Houston)  1996 (San Diego)  2000 (Philadelphia)  2004 (New York)  2008 (St. Paul)  2012 (Tampa) Affiliated organizations College Republicans  Congressional Hispanic Conference  International Democrat Union  Log Cabin Republicans  National Republican Congressional Committee  National Republican Senatorial Committee  Republican Conference of the United States House of Representatives  Republican Conference of the United States Senate  Republican Governors Association  Republican Jewish Coalition  Republican Liberty Caucus  Republican Main Street Partnership  Republican Majority for Choice  Republican National Coalition for Life  Republican National Hispanic Assembly  Republican Study Committee  Republicans Abroad  Republicans for Environmental Protection  The Ripon Society  The Wish List  Young Republicans Related articles History  2009 chairmanship election  2011 chairmanship election Conservatism Portal v d eUnited States Senators from California Class 1 Frmont Weller Broderick Haun Latham Conness Casserly Hager Booth Miller Hearst Williams Hearst Felton White Bard Flint Works Johnson Knowland Engle Salinger Murphy Tunney Hayakawa Wilson Seymour Feinstein Class 3 Gwin McDougall Cole Sargent Farley Stanford Perkins Phelan Shortridge McAdoo Storke Downey Nixon Kuchel Cranston Boxer v d eUnited States presidential election 1952 Republican Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Dwight D. Eisenhower VP Nominee: Richard Nixon Candidiates: Riley A. Bender  Robert Taft  Harold Stassen  Earl Warren Democratic Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Adlai Stevenson VP Nominee: John Sparkman Candidates: Alben W. Barkley  Paul A. Dever  W. Averell Harriman  Hubert Humphrey  Estes Kefauver  Robert S. Kerr  George Theodore Mickelson  Richard Russell Jr.  Third party and independent candidates Prohibition Party Nominee: Stuart Hamblen VP Nominee: Enoch A. Holtwick Progressive Party Nominee: Vincent Hallinan VP Nominee: Charlotta Bass Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Eric Hass Socialist Party of America Nominee: Darlington Hoopes VP Nominee: Samuel H. Friedman Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Farrell Dobbs Independents and other candidates: Edward Longstreet Bodin  Henry B. Krajewski Other 1952 elections: House  Senate v d eUnited States presidential election 1956 Republican Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Dwight D. Eisenhower VP Nominee: Richard Nixon Democratic Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Adlai Stevenson VP Nominee: Estes Kefauver Candidates: John S. Battle  Happy Chandler  James C. Davis  William Averell Harriman  Lyndon B. Johnson  Frank Lausche  George Bell Timmerman Jr.  Third party and independent candidates American Vegetarian Party Nominee: Herbert M. Shelton VP Nominee: Symon Gould Prohibition Party Nominee: Enoch A. Holtwick VP Nominee: Herbert C. Holdridge Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Eric Hass VP Nominee: Georgia Cozzini Socialist Party of America Nominee: Darlington Hoopes VP Nominee: Samuel H. Friedman Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Farrell Dobbs Independents and other candidates: T. Coleman Andrews  Gerald L. K. Smith Other 1956 elections: House  Senate v d eUnited States presidential election 1960 Democratic Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: John F. Kennedy VP Nominee: Lyndon B. Johnson Candidates: Ross Barnett  Pat Brown  Michael DiSalle  Paul C. Fisher  Hubert Humphrey  Lyndon B. Johnson  George H. McLain  Robert B. Meyner  Wayne Morse  Albert S. Porter  Adlai Stevenson  George Smathers  Stuart Symington Republican Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Richard NixonVP Nominee: Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Candidiates: Barry Goldwater  Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.  James M. Lloyd  Nelson Rockefeller  Third party and independent candidates American Vegetarian Party Nominee: Symon Gould National States' Rights Party Nominee: Orval Faubus VP Nominee: J. B. Stoner Prohibition Party Nominee: Rutherford Decker VP Nominee: E. Harold Munn Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Eric Hass VP Nominee: Georgia Cozzini Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Farrell Dobbs Independents and other candidates: Harry F. Byrd  Merritt B. Curtis  Lar Daly  George Lincoln Rockwell  Charles L. Sullivan Other 1960 elections: House  Senate v d eUnited States presidential election 1968 Republican Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Richard Nixon (campaign) VP Nominee: Spiro Agnew Candidiates: Frank Carlson  Clifford Case  Hiram L. Fong  John Lindsay  Ronald Reagan  Jim Rhodes  Nelson Rockefeller  Winthrop Rockefeller  George W. Romney  (campaign)  Harold Stassen  John A. Volpe Democratic Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Hubert Humphrey (campaign) VP Nominee: Edmund Muskie Candidates: Roger D. Branigin  John G. Crommelin  Paul C. Fisher  Lyndon B. Johnson  Robert F. Kennedy (campaign)  Thomas C. Lynch  Eugene McCarthy (campaign)  George McGovern  Dan K. Moore  Channing E. Phillips  George Smathers  Stephen M. Young American Independent Party Nominee: George Wallace VP Nominee: Curtis LeMay  Other Third party and independent candidates Communist Party USA Nominee: Charlene Mitchell VP Nominee: Michael Zagarell Peace and Freedom Party Nominee: Eldridge Cleaver VP Nominee: Douglas Fitzgerald Dowd Prohibition Party Nominee: E. Harold Munn Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Henning A. Blomen Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Fred Halstead VP Nominee: Paul Boutelle Independents and other candidates: Dick Gregory Other 1968 elections: House  Senate v d eUnited States presidential election 1972 Republican Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: Richard Nixon VP Nominee: Spiro Agnew Candidiates: John M. Ashbrook  Pete McCloskey Democratic Party Convention  Primaries Nominee: George McGovern VP Nominee: Sargent Shriver Candidates: Shirley Chisholm  Walter Fauntroy  Fred R. Harris  Vance Hartke  Wayne Hays  Hubert Humphrey  Henry M. Jackson  John Lindsay  Eugene McCarthy  Wilbur Mills  Patsy Mink  Edmund Muskie  Terry Sanford  George Wallace  Sam Yorty  Third party and independent candidates American Independent Party Nominee: John G. Schmitz VP Nominee: Thomas J. Anderson Communist Party USA Nominee: Gus Hall VP Nominee: Jarvis Tyner Libertarian Party Nominee: John Hospers VP Nominee: Tonie Nathan People's Party Nominee: Benjamin Spock VP Nominee: Julius Hobson Prohibition Party Nominee: E. Harold Munn Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Louis Fisher Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Linda Jenness  Alternate nominee: Evelyn Reed VP Nominee: Andrew Pulley Independent Gabriel Green Other 1972 elections: House  Senate v d eTime Persons of the Year Mohammad Mosaddegh (1951)  Elizabeth II (1952)  Konrad Adenauer (1953)  John Foster Dulles (1954)  Harlow Curtice (1955)  Hungarian Freedom Fighter (1956)  Nikita Khrushchev (1957)  Charles de Gaulle (1958)  Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959)  U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segr / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960)  John F. Kennedy (1961)  Pope John XXIII (1962)  Martin Luther King Jr. (1963)  Lyndon B. Johnson (1964)  William Westmoreland (1965)  Baby boomers (1966)  Lyndon B. Johnson (1967)  The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968)  The Middle Americans (1969)  Willy Brandt (1970)  Richard Nixon (1971)  Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972)  John Sirica (1973)  King Faisal (1974)  American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Carol Sutton / Susie Sharp / Addie L. Wyatt (1975) Complete roster  19271950  19511975  19762000  2001present v d e National Football Foundation Gold Medal Winners 1958: Dwight D. Eisenhower  1959: Douglas MacArthur  1960: Herbert Hoover & Amos Alonzo Stagg  1961: John F. Kennedy  1962: Byron "Whizzer" White  1963: Roger Q. Blough  1964: Donold B. Lourie  1965: Juan T. Trippe  1966: Earl H. "Red" Blaik  1967: Frederick L. Hovde  1968: Chester J. LaRoche  1969: Richard Nixon  1970: Thomas J. Hamilton  1971: Ronald Reagan  1972: Gerald Ford  1973: John Wayne  1974: Gerald B. Zornow  1975: David Packard  1976: Edgar B. Speer  1977: Louis H. Wilson  1978: Vincent dePaul Draddy  1979: William P. Lawrence  1980: Walter J. Zable  1981: Justin W. Dart  1982: Silver Anniversary Awards (NCAA) - All Honored Jim Brown Willie Davis Jack Kemp Ron Kramer Jim Swink  1983: Jack Kemp  1984: John F. McGillicuddy  1985: William I. Spencer  1986: William H. Morton  1987: Charles R. Meyer  1988: Clinton E. Frank  1989: Paul Brown  1990: Thomas H. Moorer  1991: George H. W. Bush  1992: Donald R. Keough  1993: Norman Schwarzkopf  1994: Thomas S. Murphy  1995: Harold Alfond  1996: Gene Corrigan  1997: Jackie Robinson  1998: John H. McConnell  1999: Keith Jackson  2000: Fred M. Kirby II  2001: Billy Joe "Red" McCombs  2002: George Steinbrenner  2003: Tommy Franks  2004: William V. Campbell  2005: Jon F. Hanson  2006: Joe Paterno & Bobby Bowden  2007: Pete Dawkins & Roger Staubach  2008: John Glenn  2009: Phil Knight & Bill Bowerman v d e Notable figures of the Cold War Soviet Union Joseph Stalin  Vyacheslav Molotov  Andrei Gromyko  Nikita Khrushchev  Anatoly Dobrynin  Leonid Brezhnev  Alexei Kosygin  Yuri Andropov  Konstantin Chernenko  Mikhail Gorbachev  Nikolai Ryzhkov  Eduard Shevardnadze  Gennady Yanayev  Boris Yeltsin United States Harry S. Truman  George Marshall  Joseph McCarthy  Dwight D. Eisenhower  John Foster Dulles  John F. Kennedy  Robert F. Kennedy  Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.  Lyndon B. Johnson  Richard Nixon  Henry Kissinger  Gerald Ford  Jimmy Carter  Ronald Reagan  George H. W. Bush People's Republic of China Mao Zedong  Zhou Enlai  Hua Guofeng  Deng Xiaoping  Zhao Ziyang Japan Hirohito  Shigeru Yoshida  Ichir Hatoyama  Nobusuke Kishi  Eisaku Sat  Kakuei Tanaka  Takeo Miki  Takeo Fukuda  Masayoshi hira  Zenko Suzuki  Yasuhiro Nakasone  Noboru Takeshita  Ssuke Uno  Toshiki Kaifu West Germany Konrad Adenauer  Walter Hallstein  Willy Brandt  Helmut Schmidt  Helmut Kohl United Kingdom Winston Churchill  Clement Attlee  Ernest Bevin  Anthony Eden  Harold Macmillan  Alec Douglas-Home  Harold Wilson  Edward Heath  James Callaghan  Margaret Thatcher Italy Alcide De Gasperi  Palmiro Togliatti  Giulio Andreotti  Aldo Moro  Enrico Berlinguer  Francesco Cossiga  Bettino Craxi France Charles de Gaulle  Alain Poher  Georges Pompidou  Valry Giscard d'Estaing  Franois Mitterrand Finland Urho Kekkonen Spain Francisco Franco  Luis Carrero-Blanco  Juan Carlos I  Adolfo Surez  Felipe Gonzlez People's Republic of Poland Bolesaw Bierut  Wadysaw Gomuka  Edward Gierek  Wojciech Jaruzelski  Pope John Paul II  Lech Wasa Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King  Louis St. Laurent  John Diefenbaker  Lester Pearson  Pierre Trudeau  Joe Clark  John Turner  Brian Mulroney  Kim Campbell Eastern Bloc Enver Hoxha (Albania)  Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)  Mtys Rkosi  Imre Nagy  Jnos Kdr (Hungary)  Nicolae Ceauescu (Romania)  Alexander Dubek (Czechoslovakia)  Walter Ulbricht  Erich Honecker (East Germany)  Todor Zhivkov (Bulgaria) South and East Asia Chiang Kai-shek  Chiang Ching-kuo (Taiwan)  Syngman Rhee  Park Chung-hee (South Korea)  Kim Il-sung (North Korea)  Ho Chi Minh (North Vietnam)  Ngo Dinh Diem (South Vietnam)  Pol Pot (Cambodia)  U Nu  Ne Win (Burma)  Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Bangladesh)  Indira Gandhi  Jawaharlal Nehru (India)  Sukarno  Suharto  Mohammad Hatta  Adam Malik (Indonesia)  Muhammad Ayub Khan  Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (Pakistan)  Corazon Aquino  Nur Misuari  Jose Maria Sison  Ferdinand Marcos  Imelda Marcos (Philippines)  Latin America Fidel Castro  Che Guevara (Cuba)  Juan Domingo Pern  Jorge Rafael Videla  Leopoldo Galtieri (Argentina)  Daniel Ortega (Nicaragua)  Salvador Allende  Augusto Pinochet (Chile)  Getlio Vargas  Lus Prestes  Leonel Brizola  Joo Goulart  Castelo Branco (Brazil)  Rmulo Betancourt (Venezuela) Middle East Mohammad Reza Pahlavi  Mohammad Mosaddegh  Ayatollah Khomeini (Iran)  Saddam Hussein (Iraq)  Gamal Abdel Nasser  Anwar Sadat (Egypt)  Muammar Gaddafi (Libya)  Menachem Begin (Israel)  Mohammad Najibullah  Ahmad Shah Massoud (Afghanistan) Africa Julius Nyerere (Tanzania)  Patrice Lumumba  Mobutu Sese Seko (Congo/Zaire)  Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)  Idi Amin (Uganda)  Agostinho Neto  Jos Eduardo dos Santos  Jonas Savimbi (Angola)  Mengistu Haile Mariam (Ethiopia) Category  Portal  Timeline of events v d eCabinet of President Richard Nixon (19691974) Vice President Spiro Agnew (19691973) Gerald Ford (19731974) Secretary of State William P. Rogers (19691973) Henry Kissinger (19731977) Secretary of the Treasury David M. Kennedy (19691971) John Connally (19711972) George P. Shultz (19721974) William E. Simon (19741975) Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird (19691973) Elliot Richardson (19731974) James R. Schlesinger (19741975) Attorney General John N. Mitchell (19691972) Richard Kleindienst (19721973) Elliot Richardson (19731974) William B. Saxbe (19741975) Postmaster General Winton M. Blount (19691971) Secretary of the Interior Walter Joseph Hickel (19691971) Rogers Morton (19711975) Secretary of the Agriculture Clifford M. Hardin (19691971) Earl Butz (19711976) Secretary of Commerce Maurice Stans (19691972) Peter Peterson (19721973) Frederick B. Dent (19731975) Secretary of Labor George P. Shultz (19691970) James Day Hodgson (19701973) Peter J. Brennan (19731975) Secretary of Health Education and Welfare Robert Finch (19691970) Elliot Richardson (19701973) Caspar Weinberger (19731975) Secretary of Housing and Urban Development George W. Romney (19691973) James Thomas Lynn (19731975) Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe (19691973) Claude Brinegar (19731975) Persondata Name Nixon Richard Milhous Alternative names Richard Nixon Short description American politician 37th President of the United States (19691974) Date of birth January 9 1913 Place of birth Yorba Linda California United States Date of death April 22 1994 Place of death New York City New York United States