For a more detailed explanation of how rugby union is played see Rugby union gameplay. Rugby union South African Victor Matfield takes a lineout against New Zealand in 2006. Highest governing body International Rugby Board Nickname(s) Rugger Rugby1 First played Early 19th century (early forms) 1845 (first written rules) Characteristics Contact Full Contact Team members 15 Mixed gender Separate competitions Categorization Team sport Outdoor Equipment Rugby ball Olympic 1900 1908 1920 1924 and 2016 (planned and approved).2

Rugby union is a full contact team sport which originated in England in the early 19th century.3 One of the two codes of rugby football it is based on running with the ball in hand. It is played with an oval-shaped ball on a field up to 100 metres (330 ft) long and 70 metres (230 ft) wide45 with H-shaped goal posts on each goal line.

William Webb Ellis is often credited with the invention of running with the ball in hand in 1823 at Rugby School when he allegedly caught the ball while playing football and ran towards the opposition goal. Although the evidence to support the Ellis story is doubtful (the story did not appear until three years after Ellis's death and records show rugby's inception precedes that of football)6 it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in 1895.7 In 1848 the first laws were written by pupils;8 other significant events in the early development of rugby include the Blackheath Club's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the split between rugby union and rugby league in 1895.

The International Rugby Board (IRB) has been the governing body for rugby union since its formation in 1886. Currently 115 national unions are members of the IRB. In 1995 the IRB removed restrictions on payments to players making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time.

The Rugby World Cup first held in 1987 takes place every four years with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup. The Six Nations in Europe and the Tri Nations in the southern hemisphere are major international competitions held annually. Major domestic competitions include the Top 14 in France the Aviva Premiership in England the Currie Cup in South Africa and the ITM Cup in New Zealand. Other transnational competitions include the Magners League originally involving Irish Scottish and Welsh teams and now Italian teams as well; Super Rugby (previously Super 12 and Super 14) involving South African Australian and New Zealand teams; and the Heineken Cup involving the top European teams from their respective domestic competitions. Contents 1 History 2 Laws 3 Equipment 4 Governing bodies 5 Global reach 6 Women's rugby union 7 Major international competitions 7.1 Olympic rugby union 7.2 Women's international rugby 8 Variants 9 Influence on other sports 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Printed sources 11.2 Electronic sources 12 External links History Main article: History of rugby union Rugby School in Rugby Warwickshire with a rugby football pitch in the foreground

The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823 when William Webb-Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it.9 Although this tale is anecdotal the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after him. Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School which old pupils initially took to university; Old Rugbeian Albert Pell a student at Cambridge is credited with having formed the first 'football' team.10 During this early period different schools used different rules with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities.11

Significant events in the early development of rugby football were the production of the first set of written laws at Rugby School in 1845 the Blackheath Club's decision to leave the Football Association in 18631213 and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871.12 The code was originally known simply as "rugby football"; it was not until after a schism in 1895 which resulted in the separate code of rugby league that the name "rugby union" came to be used for the game itself. Supporters of both codes will frequently refer to theirs as merely "rugby" or "rugby football" unless they are differentiating between the two.

The first rugby football international took place on 27 March 1871 played between England and Scotland.12 By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams and in 1883 the first international competition the Home Nations Championship had begun. 1883 also saw the first rugby sevens tournament at Melrosethe Melrose Sevens14 which is still held annually. Five years later two important overseas tours took place; a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealandalthough a private venture it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours; and the 1888 New Zealand Native team brought the first overseas team to British spectators.

Between 1905 and 1908 all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere: Dave Gallaher's New Zealand in 1905 followed by Paul Roos's South Africa in 1906 and then Herbert Moran's Australia in 1908. All three teams brought new styles of play fitness levels and tactics15 and were far more successful than critics had expected. 1905 also saw the first French internationals.15

The New Zealand 1905 touring team performed a haka before each match leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau as a response. After Morgan began singing the crowd joined in: the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event.16 The years during the First World War saw an end of international rugby union games and union-sponsored club matches but competitions continued with service teams such as the New Zealand Army team.17 The Second World War saw an end of international matches from most countries though Italy Germany and Romania played a limited number of games181920 and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match.21 In 1973 the first officially sanctioned international sevens tournament took place at Murrayfield as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations.22 In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in New Zealand and Australia and the inaugural winners were New Zealand. The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993. Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game 'open' in 1995 removing restrictions on payments to players.23 However the pre-1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of "shamateurism"24 including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee.2526 Laws Main article: Rugby union gameplay Ireland and Georgia contesting a lineout in the 2007 Rugby World Cup A scrum A rugby tackle: tackles must be below the neck with the aim of impeding or grounding the player with the ball Rugby union is played between two teams the one which scores more points wins the game. Points can be scored in several ways: a try scored by grounding the ball in the in-goal area is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points.27 The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years. Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field.28 During the match players may be replaced (for injury) or substituted (for tactical reasons).28 A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily to replace a player who has a blood injury or permanently if he is replacing a front-row forward.28 In international matches up to seven replacements are allowed; in domestic or cross-border tournaments at the discretion of the responsible national union(s) the number may be increased to eight of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions.29 Players in a team are divided into eight forwards (two more than in rugby league) and seven backs. Forwards are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and lineout while backs are generally smaller but faster more agile and often the main points scorers for the team. The field of play on a rugby pitch is as near as possible to a maximum of 100m long and 70m wide. There are several lines crossing it notably the half way line the goal line/try line (on which the goal posts are located) the "twenty two" which is 22m from the goal line and the dead ball line which ideally is at least 10m but not more than 22m behind the goal line.5 At the beginning of the game the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first. Play then starts with a drop kick with the players chasing the ball into the opposition's territory and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it. If the player with the ball is tackled frequently a ruck will result.30 Forward passing (throwing the ball ahead to another player) is not allowed. The ball can be passed laterally or backwards but cannot be thrown forward. The ball tends to be moved forward in three waysby kicking by a player running with it and passing it to a teammate who continues the run or within a scrum or maul. Unlike in American football "blocking" is not allowed so only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked. When a ball is knocked forward by a player with his/her arms a "knock-on" is committed and play is restarted with a scrum. When the ball leaves the side of the field a lineout is awarded against the team which last touched the ball. The lineout is usually awarded at the position where the ball left the field of play but if the ball is kicked directly into touch from outside the "twenty-two" or if a team plays the ball back into its own "twenty-two" and the ball is then kicked directly into touch the lineout is awarded at a point opposite where the ball was kicked. To form a lineout players from each team line up in parallel lines at least 1m apart and at least 5m from the sideline; a player (usually but not necessarily the hooker) from the team that was awarded the lineout throws the ball down the gap between the two lines of players who can jump or be lifted in an attempt to secure possession of the ball. Lineouts are one of the chief differences between the two rugby codes as they do not occur in rugby league. Games are divided into 40-minute halves with a break in the middle. The sides exchange ends of the field after the half-time break. Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes. The referee is responsible for keeping time even whenas in many professional tournamentshe is assisted by an official time-keeper. If time expires while the ball is in play the game continues until the ball is 'dead' and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half-time or full-time; but if the referee awards a penalty or free-kick the game continues.31 Tries are scored between the goal line and the dead ball line. The goal line is treated as part of the in-goal area and a try can be scored if the ball is grounded with any part of it touching the goal line. The dead ball line is out of play and a ball that touches or crosses the dead ball line or that is held by a player who touches or crosses the dead ball line is out of play. Rugby goalposts are H-shaped and consist of two poles 5.6m apart connected by a horizontal crossbar 3m above the ground. Unlike some other sports there are no goalkeepers and the section underneath the crossbar has no special meaning. The original pitch dimensions were in imperial units but have since been converted to the metric system. There are three match officials: a referee and two assistant referees. The latter formerly known as touch judges had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone "into touch"; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas such as watching for foul play and checking off-side lines. In addition for matches in high level competitions there is often a television match official (TMO; popularly called the "video referee") to assist with certain decisions linked up to the referee by radio.32 The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decisions. Common offences include tackling above the shoulders collapsing a scrum ruck or maul not releasing the ball when on the ground or being off-side. The non-offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty: a "tap" kick when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it; a punt when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand for field position; a place-kick when the kicker will attempt to score a goal; or a scrum. Players may be sent off (signalled by a red card) or temporarily suspended ("sin-binned") for ten minutes (yellow card) for foul play or repeated infringements and may not be replaced. Equipment A professional player (Scott Daruda of the Western Australian team Western Force) wearing a scrum cap The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself a rugby shirt (also known as a "jersey") rugby shorts socks and boots which have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch. The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges. Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated. The most common items are mouthguards which are worn by almost all players and are compulsory in some rugby-playing nations.33 Other protective items that are permitted include a scrum cap; thin (not more than 10 mm thick) non-rigid shoulder pads and shin guards; which are worn underneath socks. Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks. Female players may also wear chest pads.3435 Fingerless gloves (grip gloves) are sometimes worn to improve players' grip on the ball. It is the responsibility of the match officials to check players' clothing and equipment before a game to ensure that it conforms to the laws of the game. Governing bodies See also: International Rugby Board and Timeline of foundation of national rugby unions The international governing body of rugby union (and associated games such as sevens) is the International Rugby Board (IRB). The IRB headquarters are located in Dublin Ireland. Six continental associations which are members of the IRB form the next level of administration; these are: Confederation of African Rugby (CAR) Asian Rugby Football Union (ARFU) North American and Caribbean Rugby Association (NACRA) Fdration Internationale de Rugby Amateur Association Europenne de Rugby (FIRA-AER) Federation of Oceania Rugby Unions (FORU) Confederacin Sudamericana de Rugby (South American Rugby Confederation) (CONSUR) SANZAR (South Africa New Zealand and Australia Rugby) is a joint venture of the South African Rugby Union the New Zealand Rugby Union and the Australian Rugby Union which operates the Super Rugby and Tri Nations competitions. National unions oversee rugby union within individual countries. These are affiliated both to the IRB and with their respective regional association. Global reach URBA Rugby 2007 Finals Germany playing Belgium Japanese and Welsh rugby fans in Cardiff Wales Rugby union has established itself as a popular sport for both spectators and participants particularly in Australia Argentina Cook Islands England Fiji France Georgia Ireland Italy Japan Madagascar New Zealand Niue Namibia Romania Samoa Scotland Solomon Islands South Africa Tonga and Wales.3637 Other places with lasting traditions in rugby football as a minority sport in most cases include Andorra Barbados Belgium Bermuda Brazil Canada Chile Cte d'Ivoire Cuba Czech Republic Denmark Germany Hong Kong India Kenya Malaysia Moldova Morocco The Netherlands Pakistan Papua New Guinea Paraguay Poland Portugal Russia Singapore South Korea Spain Sri Lanka Switzerland Tunisia Uganda Ukraine Uruguay the United States Venezuela Zambia and Zimbabwe. In April 2010 Lithuania broke the record of consecutive international wins previously held by New Zealand and South Africawhich was 17 consecutive wins against tier 1 nations38 with their 18th win in tier 2 in a match against Serbia.39 The United States are the most recent Olympic gold medalists; an American team stacked with American football players won the event at the Paris Olympics in 1924 which was the last year rugby union was played at the games.40 Large numbers of players are active in North America and the USA regularly qualify for World Cups while Canada has participated at every World Cup.4142 Japan also a country with many registered players will host the 2019 World Cup.43 It will be the first country outside of traditional playing areas to host the event and is viewed by the IRB as an opportunity for rugby union to extend its reach43 particularly in Asia. Previously Japan unsuccessfully bid to host the 2011 tournament narrowly losing to selected host New Zealand.44 The International Rugby Board (IRB) founded in 1886 governs the sport worldwide and also publishes the game's laws and rankings. There are currently 95 full members45 and eight associate member countries. According to IRB figures rugby union is played in over 100 countries spanning six continents by men and women of all ages.46 The IRB controls the Rugby World Cup the Women's Rugby World Cup Rugby World Cup Sevens IRB Sevens World Series Junior World Championship Junior World Trophy Nations Cup and the Pacific Nations Cup. It holds votes to decide where all of these events shall be held except in the case of the Sevens World Series. For that competition the IRB contracts with several national unions to hold individual events. Women's rugby union Main article: Women's rugby union US women's rugby: NC Hustlers vs. Midwest II Records of women's rugby football go back to the late 19th century with the first documented source being Emily Valentine's writings stating that she set up a rugby team in Portora Royal School in Enniskillen Ireland in 1887.47 Although there are reports of early women's matches in New Zealand and France one of the first notable games to prove primary evidence was the 1917 war-time encounter between Cardiff Ladies and Newport Ladies; a photo of which shows the Cardiff team before the match at the Cardiff Arms Park.48 In the past 30 years the game has grown in popularity among female athletes and according to England's RFU is now played in over 80 countries. The English Rugby Football Union for Women (RFUW) was founded in 1983 and is the oldest formally organised national governing body for women's rugby.37 Major international competitions For more details on this topic see List of rugby union competitions. A giant rugby ball is suspended from the Eiffel Tower to commemorate France's hosting of the 2007 Rugby World Cup The most important tournament in rugby union is the Rugby World Cup a men's tournament that takes place every four years among the elite national rugby union teams. South Africa is the current holder winning the 2007 tournament held in France. They beat 2003 winners England in the final; no World Cup winner has yet retained the trophy. England were the first team from the Northern Hemisphere to win the previous champions being New Zealand (1987) Australia (1991 and 1999) South Africa (1995 and 2007). Major international competitions are the Six Nations Championship and the Tri Nations Series held in the northern and southern hemispheres respectively. The Six Nations is an annual competition involving the European teams England France Ireland Italy Scotland and Wales. Each country plays the other five once. After the initial internationals between England and Scotland the 1880s saw Ireland and Wales begin competing forming the Home International Championships. France joined the tournament in the 1900s and in 1910 the term Five Nations first appeared. However the Home Nations (England Ireland Scotland and Wales) excluded France in 1931 amid a run of poor results allegations of professionalism (rugby union was officially amateur until 1995) and concerns over on-field violence. France then rejoined in 19391940 though World War II halted proceedings for a further eight years. France has played in all the tournaments since WWII the first of which was played in 1947. In 2000 Italy became the sixth nation in the contest and Rome's Stadio Flaminio where their games are played is the smallest venue in the tournament.The reigning Six Nations champions are England who won four of their games but lost 248 to Ireland and therefore failing to get the grand slam.49 The Tri Nations is an annual international series held between the southern hemisphere teams of Australia New Zealand and South Africa. These teams have dominated world rankings in recent years and some consider the Tri Nations to be the toughest competition in international rugby.5051 The Tri Nations was initially played on a home and away basis with the three nations playing each other twice. In 2006 a new system was introduced where each nation plays the others three times though in 2007 the teams played each other only twice as it was a World Cup year. Especially since Argentina's strong performances in the 2007 World Cup a number of commentators believed they should join the Tri-Nations.52 This was first seriously proposed for the 2008 tournament53 then for 201054 but came much closer to reality after the 2009 Tri Nations tournament when SANZAR (South Africa New Zealand and Australian Rugby) extended an official invitation to the Unin Argentina de Rugby (UAR) to join an expanded Four Nations tournament in 2012. This move has generally been met with great approval from all parties involved.5556 The invitation is subject to certain conditions like the guaranteed availability of Argentina's top players most of whom play professional club rugby in Europe at present. To accommodate Argentina's entry the IRB changed its Regulation 9 which governs the release of players for international duty in early 2011. Since Argentina was not in a major hemispheric competition the country's internationals only had to be released for the June and November Tests. The change introduced a new release period from late August to early October for all four major Southern Hemisphere powers. SANZAR chief Greg Peters noted at the time that this change would make Argentine internationals less attractive to Northern Hemisphere clubs.57 Amidst all the international competitions there are also various Test matches and series often as part of tours by national teams which generally take place from September to December and from June to August. Olympic rugby union Main article: Rugby union at the Summer Olympics Rugby union was played at the Olympic Games in 1900 1908 1920 and 1924. As per Olympic rules the nations of Scotland Wales and England were not allowed to play separately as they are not sovereign states. In 1900 France won the gold beating Great Britain 27 points to 8 and defeating Germany 27 points to 17. In 1908 Australasia defeated Great Britain claiming the gold medal the score being 32 points to three. In 1920 the U.S. upset France featuring many players new to the sport of rugby caused a shock by winning the only match eight points to zero all points being scored in the second half. In 1924 the U.S. defeated France 17 to 3 becoming the only team to win gold twice in the sport. Rugby in the 1924 Olympic Games was the first Olympic Games that featured film highlights of the rugby matches. Some consider the US victory over France as one of the biggest upsets in sports history. Vintage footage from the gold medal match can be found in the documentary A Giant Awakens: the Rise of American Rugby. Rugby sevens has been played at the Commonwealth Games since 1998 and on 9 October 2009 the International Olympic Committee voted with a majority of 81 to 8 that rugby union be reinstated as an Olympic sport in at least the 2016 and 2020 games but in the sevens 4-day tournament format.5859 This is something the rugby world has aspired to for a long time and Bernard Lapasset president of the International Rugby Board said the Olympic gold medal would be considered to be "the pinnacle of our sport" (Rugby Sevens).60 Women's international rugby Main article: Women's international rugby union Women's international rugby union began in 1982 with a match between France and Netherlands played in Utrecht.61 Over six hundred women's internationals have been played by over forty different nations. The first Women's Rugby World Cup was held in Wales in 1991 and was won by the United States. The second tournament took place in 1994 and since that date the competition has been held every four years. The New Zealand Women's team have won the last four World Cups (1998 2002 2006 2010). As well as the Women's Rugby World Cup there are also other regular tournaments including a Six Nations run in parallel to the men's competition. Variants Beach Rugby match Besides the full-contact 15-a-side code other variants exist: Rugby sevens (7's or VIIs) is a fast-paced variant which originated in Melrose Scotland in 1883. In rugby sevens there are only 7 players per side and each half is normally 7 minutes. Major tournaments include the Hong Kong Sevens and Dubai Sevens both held in areas not normally associated with the highest levels of the 15-a-side game. Touch rugby in which "tackles" are made by simply touching the ball carrier with two hands. Tag Rugby in which the participants wear a belt with two Velcro tags the removal of either counting as a 'tackle'. Mini rugby also known as "New Image Rugby" which originated in England is a variety mainly used to coach children.62 Rugby tens (10's or Xs) a Malaysian variant with ten players per side.63 American Flag Rugby (AFR) like mini rugby is a mixed gender non-contact imitation of Rugby Union designed for American children entering grades K-9.64 Other less formal variants include beach rugby snow rugby and street rugby. Influence on other sports See also: History of American football Comparison of American football and rugby union Origins of Australian rules football and Comparison of rugby league and rugby union A game of American football between the University of Michigan and the University of Minnesota (1902). Earlier forms of the game had a more obvious kinship with their rugby equivalents. Rugby union football and its immediate ancestor rugby football has had a strong influence on several other sports. The Gridiron codes American football6566 and Canadian football67 are derived from early forms of rugby. Confusingly in Canada Canadian football has also frequently been referred to as "rugby football"67 and a number of national and provincial bodies were called "Rugby Football Unions" or "Rugby Unions" such as the Ontario and Quebec Rugby Football Unions.67 For example in the Encyclopedia Canadiana the entry Rugby Football begins by referring to "the Canadian development of rugby union or "English rugger" introduced into Canada in the third quarter of the nineteenth century" but later states that "the Canadian game is a radical departure from rugby union".67 Australian rules football has been influenced by a large number of sports including Gaelic football rugby football and cricket. Many authors believe that the primary influence was rugby football and other other games originating in English public schools.68 Tom Wills the founding father of Australian Rules also attended Rugby School. Swedish football was a code whose rules were a mix of the association football rules and the rugby football rules. Some played the game with a round ball while others played with an oval ball.69 It is no longer played. Rugby lends its name to wheelchair rugby (also known as "quad rugby" or "murderball") but the sport is more strongly influenced by wheelchair basketball ice hockey and handball than rugby union. Likewise the sport of underwater rugby is related to rugby in little more than name. See also Rugby union portal Wikinews has news related to: Rugby International Rugby Hall of Fame IRB Hall of Fame List of international rugby union teams List of oldest rugby union competitions List of rugby union terms Experimental law variations Rugby union positions Rugby union equipment Comparison of rugby league and rugby union References Else David (2007). British language & culture (2nd ed.). Lonely Planet. p. 97. ISBN 186450286X.  http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/news/storyid4545111 Origins of Rugby Codification"The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1820 and 1830." "Intro EN" (PDF). http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law2EN7708.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2010.  a b "Intro EN" (PDF). http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law1EN7709.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2010.  "Flotsam". QI. BBC. BBC One. 9 January 2009. No. 3 series F. William Webb Ellis fact or fiction bbc.co.uk "Early Laws". 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Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/news/6281166/Rugby-sevens-and-golf-ratified-for-2016-Olympics-in-Rio-de-Janeiro.html. Retrieved 5 November 2010.  "BBC SPORT Olympics Golf & rugby voted into Olympics". BBC News. 19 October 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympicgames/8292584.stm. Retrieved 6 February 2010.  World Rugby Chronology RFU.com Rutherford Don (1993). The Complete Book of Mini Rugby. London: Partridge. p. 2. ISBN 1852251964.  Bath (1997) p. 71 About AFR americanflagrugby.com Bath (1997) p. 77 Stubbs Ray The Sports Book p. 115 a b c d "Rugby football" in Encyclopedia Canadiana p. 110 Geoffrey Blainey Leonie Sandercock Ian Turner and Sean Fagan have all written in support of this view. See for example: Richard Davis 1991 "Irish and Australian Nationalism: the Sporting Connection: Football & Cricket" Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies Bulletin v.3 no.2 pp. 4950 and; B. W. O'Dwyer 1989 "The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football" Victorian Historical Journal v.60 no.1. Jnsson ke (2006). Fotboll: hur vrldens strsta sport vxte fram. Lund: Historiska media. p. 203. ISBN 91-85377-48-1.  Printed sources Encyclopedia Canadiana vol. 8. Toronto Ottawa Montreal: Grolier of Canada. 1972. ISBN 0717216012.  Bath Richard ed (1997). Complete Book of Rugby. Seven Oaks Ltd. ISBN 1862000133.  Godwin Terry; Rhys Chris (1981). The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats. Enfield: Guinness Superlatives Ltd. ISBN 0851122140.  Griffiths John (1987). The Phoenix Book of International Rugby Records. London: Phoenix House. p. 5:3. ISBN 0460070037. Marshall Howard; Jordon J.P. (1951). Oxford v Cambridge The Story of the University Rugby Match. London: Clerke & Cockeran.  Midgley Ruth (1979). The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games. London: Diagram Group. ISBN 0-7092-0153-2.  Richards Huw (2007). A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 978-1845962555.  Stubbs Ray (2009). The Sports Book. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-1405336970.  Electronic sources "Laws of Rugby Union". IRB. 2010. http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/laws/index.html. Retrieved 16 January 2011.  "IRB Regulations". IRB. http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/regulations/index.html. 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