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Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with the impact of imagined innovations in science or technology often in a futuristic setting.123 Exploring the consequences of such innovations is the traditional purpose of science fiction making it a "literature of ideas".4

Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possibilities.5 It is similar to but differs from fantasy in that within the context of the story its imaginary elements are largely possible within scientifically established or scientifically postulated laws of nature (though some elements in a story might still be pure imaginative speculation).

The settings for science fiction are often contrary to known reality but the majority of science fiction relies on a considerable degree of suspension of disbelief which is facilitated in the reader's mind by potential scientific explanations or solutions to various fictional elements. These may include: A setting in the future in alternative timelines or in an historical past that contradicts known facts of history or the archaeological record A setting in outer space on other worlds or involving aliens6 Stories that involve technology or scientific principles that contradict known laws of nature7 Stories that involve discovery or application of new scientific principles such as time travel or psionics or new technology such as nanotechnology faster-than-light travel or robots or of new and different political or social systems (e.g. a dystopia or a situation where organized society has collapsed)8 Contents 1 Definitions 2 History 2.1 Innovation 3 Subgenres 3.1 Hard SF 3.2 Soft and social SF 3.3 Cyberpunk 3.4 Time travel 3.5 Alternate history 3.6 Military SF 3.7 Superhuman 3.8 Apocalyptic 3.9 Space opera 3.10 Space Western 3.11 Other sub-genres 4 Related genres 4.1 Speculative fiction fantasy and horror 4.2 Fantasy 4.3 Horror fiction 4.4 Mystery fiction 4.5 Superhero fiction 5 Fandom and community 5.1 Awards 5.2 Conventions clubs and organizations 5.3 Fanzines and online fandom 5.4 Fan fiction 6 Science fiction studies 6.1 Science fiction as serious literature 7 Science fiction world-wide 7.1 Africa and African diaspora 7.2 Asia 7.3 Europe 7.4 Oceania 7.5 North America 8 See also 9 Notes and references 9.1 Notes 9.2 References 10 External links Definitions For more details on this topic see Definitions of science fiction.

Science fiction is difficult to define as it includes a wide range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty by stating that "science fiction is what we point to when we say it"9 a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography: you don't know what it is but you know it when you see it.10 Vladimir Nabokov argued that if we were rigorous with our definitions Shakespeare's play The Tempest would have to be termed science fiction.11 According to science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein "a handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read: realistic speculation about possible future events based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world past and present and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."12 Rod Serling's definition is "fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science Fiction is the improbable made possible."13 Lester del Rey wrote "Even the devoted aficionadoor fanhas a hard time trying to explain what science fiction is" and that the reason for there not being a "full satisfactory definition" is that "there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction."14 Forrest J Ackerman used the term sci-fi at UCLA in 1954.15 As science fiction entered popular culture writers and fans active in the field came to associate the term with low-budget low-tech "B-movies" and with low-quality pulp science fiction.161718 By the 1970s critics within the field such as Terry Carr and Damon Knight were using sci-fi to distinguish hack-work from serious science fiction19 and around 1978 Susan Wood and others introduced the pronunciation "skiffy". Peter Nicholls writes that "SF" (or "sf") is "the preferred abbreviation within the community of sf writers and readers".20 David Langford's monthly fanzine Ansible includes a regular section "As Others See Us" which offers numerous examples of "sci-fi" being used in a pejorative sense by people outside the genre.21 History For more details on this topic see History of science fiction. As a means of understanding the world through speculation and storytelling science fiction has antecedents back to mythology though precursors to science fiction as literature can be seen in Lucian's True History in the 2nd century2223242526 some of the Arabian Nights tales2728 The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter in the 10th century28 Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus in the 13th century29 and Jules Verne's A Journey to the Centre of the Earth and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea in the 19th century. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of modern science itself Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels30 was one of the first true science fantasy works together with Voltaire's Micromgas and Johannes Kepler's Somnium.citation needed The latter work is considered the first science fiction story by Carl Sagan31 and Isaac Asimov.32 It depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earth's motion is seen from there. Another example is Ludvig Holberg's novel Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum 1741. (Translated to Danish by Hans Hagerup in 1742 as Niels Klims underjordiske Rejse.) (Eng. Niels Klim's Underground Travels.) Brian Aldiss has argued that Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818) was the first work of science fiction 33 Following the 18th century development of the novel as a literary form in the early 19th century Mary Shelley's books Frankenstein and The Last Man helped define the form of the science fiction novel;34 later Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon.35 More examples appeared throughout the 19th century. H. G. Wells Then with the dawn of new technologies such as electricity the telegraph and new forms of powered transportation writers like Jules Verne and H. G. Wells created a body of work that became popular across broad cross-sections of society.36 Wells' The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry. It is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century the term "scientific romance" was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots such as the 1884 novella Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions by Edwin Abbott Abbott. The term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. Jules Verne In the early 20th century pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers influenced by Hugo Gernsback the founder of Amazing Stories magazine.37 In the late 1930s John W. Campbell became editor of Astounding Science Fiction and a critical mass of new writers emerged in New York City in a group called the Futurians including Isaac Asimov Damon Knight Donald A. Wollheim Frederik Pohl James Blish Judith Merril and others.38 Other important writers during this period included E.E. (Doc) Smith Robert A. Heinlein Arthur C. Clarke Olaf Stapledon A. E. van Vogt and Stanisaw Lem. Campbell's tenure at Astounding is considered to be the beginning of the Golden Age of science fiction characterized by hard SF stories celebrating scientific achievement and progress.37 This lasted until postwar technological advances new magazines like Galaxy under Pohl as editor and a new generation of writers began writing stories outside the Campbell mode. In the 1950s the Beat generation included speculative writers like William S. Burroughs. In the 1960s and early 1970s writers like Frank Herbert Samuel R. Delany Roger Zelazny and Harlan Ellison explored new trends ideas and writing styles while a group of writers mainly in Britain became known as the New Wave.30 In the 1970s writers like Larry Niven and Poul Anderson began to redefine hard SF.39 Ursula K. Le Guin and others pioneered soft science fiction.40 In the 1980s cyberpunk authors like William Gibson turned away from the traditional optimism and support for progress of traditional science fiction.41 The Star Wars franchise helped spark a new interest in space opera42 focusing more on story and character than on scientific accuracy. C. J. Cherryh's detailed explorations of alien life and complex scientific challenges influenced a generation of writers.43 Emerging themes in the 1990s included environmental issues the implications of the global Internet and the expanding information universe questions about biotechnology and nanotechnology as well as a post-Cold War interest in post-scarcity societies; Neal Stephenson's The Diamond Age comprehensively explores these themes. Lois McMaster Bujold's Vorkosigan novels brought the character-driven story back into prominence.44 The television series Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987) began a torrent of new SF shows including three further Star Trek spin-off shows and Babylon 5.4546 Concern about the rapid pace of technological change crystallized around the concept of the technological singularity popularized by Vernor Vinge's novel Marooned in Realtime and then taken up by other authors.citation needed Innovation While SF has provided criticism of developing and future technologies it also produces innovation and new technology. The discussion of this topic has occurred more in literary and sociological than in scientific forums. Cinema and media theorist Vivian Sobchack examines the dialogue between science fiction film and the technological imagination. Technology does impact how artists portray their fictionalized subjects but the fictional world gives back to science by broadening imagination. While more prevalent in the beginning years of science fiction with writers like Arthur C. Clarke new authors still find ways to make the currently impossible technologies seem so close to being realized.47 Subgenres For more details on this topic see Science fiction genre. Authors and filmmakers draw on a wide spectrum of ideas but marketing departments and literary critics tend to separate such literary and cinematic works into different categories or "genres" and subgenres.48 These are not simple pigeonholes; works can be overlapped into two or more commonly-defined genres while others are beyond the generic boundaries either outside or between categories and the categories and genres used by mass markets and literary criticism differ considerably. Hard SF Main article: Hard science fiction Hard science fiction or "hard SF" is characterized by rigorous attention to accurate detail in quantitative sciences especially physics astrophysics and chemistry or on accurately depicting worlds that more advanced technology may make possible. Many accurate predictions of the future come from the hard science fiction subgenre but numerous inaccurate predictions have emerged as well. Some hard SF authors have distinguished themselves as working scientists including Gregory Benford Geoffrey A. Landis and David Brin4950 while mathematician authors include Rudy Rucker and Vernor Vinge. Other noteworthy hard SF authors include Isaac Asimov Arthur C. Clarke Hal Clement Greg Bear Larry Niven Robert J. Sawyer Stephen Baxter Alastair Reynolds Charles Sheffield Ben Bova and Greg Egan. Soft and social SF See also: Soft science fiction Social science fiction Cyberpunk Time travel in fiction Alternate history Military science fiction Superhuman Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction World War III (science fiction) Space opera Space Western Category:science fiction organizations Category:Science fiction websites and Fan fiction terminology The description "soft" science fiction may describe works based on social sciences such as psychology economics political science sociology and anthropology. Noteworthy writers in this category include Ursula K. Le Guin and Philip K. Dick.3751 The term can describe stories focused primarily on character and emotion; SFWA Grand Master Ray Bradbury is an acknowledged master of this art.52 The Soviet Union produced a quantity of social science fiction including works by the Strugatsky brothers Kir Bulychov Yevgeny Zamyatin and Ivan Yefremov.5354 Some writers blur the boundary between hard and soft science fiction.citation needed Related to Social SF and Soft SF are the speculative fiction branches of utopian or dystopian stories; George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale are examples. Satirical novels with fantastic settings such as Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift may be considered speculative fiction. Cyberpunk The Cyberpunk genre emerged in the early 1980s; combining "cybernetics" and "punk"55 the term was coined by author Bruce Bethke for his 1980 short story "Cyberpunk".56 The time frame is usually near-future and the settings are often dystopian (characterized by misery). Common themes in cyberpunk include advances in information technology and especially the Internet (visually abstracted as cyberspace) artificial intelligence and prosthetics and post-democratic societal control where corporations have more influence than governments. Nihilism post-modernism and film noir techniques are common elements and the protagonists may be disaffected or reluctant anti-heroes. Noteworthy authors in this genre are William Gibson Bruce Sterling Neal Stephenson and Pat Cadigan. James O'Ehley has called the 1982 film Blade Runner a definitive example of the cyberpunk visual style.57 Time travel Time travel stories have antecedents in the 18th and 19th centuries. The first major time travel novel was Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. The most famous is H. G. Wells's 1895 novel The Time Machine which uses a vehicle that allows an operator to travel purposefully and selectively while Twain's time traveler is struck in the head. The term "time machine" coined by Wells is now universally used to refer to such a vehicle. Stories of this type are complicated by logical problems such as the grandfather paradox.58 Time travel is a popular subject in modern science fiction in print movies and television such as the BBC series Doctor Who. Alternate history Alternate (or alternative) history stories are based on the premise that historical events might have turned out differently. These stories may use time travel to change the past or may simply set a story in a universe with a different history from our own. Classics in the genre include Bring the Jubilee by Ward Moore in which the South wins the American Civil War and The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick in which Germany and Japan win World War II. The Sidewise Award acknowledges the best works in this subgenre; the name is taken from Murray Leinster's 1934 story "Sidewise in Time." Harry Turtledove is one of the most prominent authors in the subgenre and is sometimes called the "master of alternate history".5960 Military SF Military science fiction is set in the context of conflict between national interplanetary or interstellar armed forces; the primary viewpoint characters are usually soldiers. Stories include detail about military technology procedure ritual and history; military stories may use parallels with historical conflicts. Heinlein's Starship Troopers is an early example along with the Dorsai novels of Gordon Dickson. Joe Haldeman's The Forever War is a critique of the genre a Vietnam-era response to the World War IIstyle stories of earlier authors.61 Prominent military SF authors include John Ringo David Drake David Weber and S. M. Stirling. Baen Books is known for cultivating military science fiction authors.62 Superhuman Superhuman stories deal with the emergence of humans who have abilities beyond the norm. This can stem either from natural causes such as in Olaf Stapledon's novel Odd John and Theodore Sturgeon's More Than Human or be the result of intentional augmentation such as in A. E. van Vogt's novel Slan. These stories usually focus on the alienation that these beings feel as well as society's reaction to them. These stories have played a role in the real life discussion of human enhancement. Frederik Pohl's Man Plus also belongs to this category. Apocalyptic Apocalyptic fiction is concerned with the end of civilization through war (On the Beach) pandemic (The Last Man) astronomic impact (When Worlds Collide) ecological disaster (The Wind from Nowhere) or mankind's self-destruction (Oryx and Crake or A Canticle for Leibowitz) or some other general disaster or with a world or civilization after such a disaster. Typical of the genre are George R. Stewart's novel Earth Abides and Pat Frank's novel Alas Babylon. Apocalyptic fiction generally concerns the disaster itself and the direct aftermath while post-apocalyptic can deal with anything from the near aftermath (as in Cormac McCarthy's The Road) to 375 years in the future (as in By The Waters of Babylon) to hundreds or thousands of years in the future as in Russell Hoban's novel Riddley Walker. Space opera Space opera is adventure science fiction set in outer space or on distant planets where the emphasis is on action rather than either science or characterization. The conflict is heroic and typically on a large scale. Space opera is sometimes used pejoratively to describe improbable plots absurd science and cardboard characters. But it is also used nostalgically and modern space opera may be an attempt to recapture the sense of wonder of the golden age of science fiction. The pioneer of this subgenre is generally recognized to be Edward E. (Doc) Smith with his Skylark and Lensman series. Alastair Reynolds's Revelation Space series Peter F. Hamilton's The Dreaming Void The Night's Dawn and Pandora's Star series Vernor Vinge's A Fire Upon the Deep and A Deepness in the Sky and the immensely popular Star Wars trilogies are newer examples of this genre. Space Western Space Western could be considered a sub-genre of space opera that transposes themes of the American Western books and film to a backdrop of futuristic space frontiers. These stories typically involve "frontier" colony worlds (colonies that have only recently been terraformed and/or settled) serving as stand-ins for the backdrop of lawlessness and economic expansion that were predominant in the American west. Examples include Cowboys and Aliens Firefly and the accompanying movie Serenity by Joss Whedon as well as the Japanese comic and animation series Trigun Outlaw Star and Cowboy Bebop. The Star Wars character Han Solo is also considered elemental to this genre. Other sub-genres This section requires expansion. Feminist science fiction poses questions about social issues such as how society constructs gender roles the role reproduction plays in defining gender and the unequal political and personal power of men and women. Some of the most notable feminist science fiction works have illustrated these themes using utopias to explore a society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist or dystopias to explore worlds in which gender inequalities are intensified thus asserting a need for feminist work to continue.63 Some work of Ursula Le Guin can be thus categorised. New Wave is a term applied to science fiction writing characterized by a high degree of experimentation both in form and in content and a highbrow and self-consciously "literary" or artistic sensibility. Steampunk is based on the idea of futuristic technology existing in the past usually the 19th century and often set in Victorian era Englandbut with prominent elements of either science fiction or fantasy such as fictional technological inventions like those found in the works of H. G. Wells and Jules Verne or real technological developments like the computer occurring at an earlier date. Popular examples include The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling as well as the Girl Genius series by Phil and Kaja Foglio although seeds of the genre may be seen in certain works of Michael Moorcock Philip Jose Farmer and Steve Stiles and in such games as Space 1889 and Marcus Rowland's Forgotten Futures. Machines are most often powered by steam in this genre (hence the name). Comic science fiction is a sub-genre that exploits the genre's conventions for comic effect. Anthropological science fiction is a sub-genre that absorbs and discusses anthropology and the study of human kind. Examples include Hominids by Robert Sawyer and Neanderthal by John Darnton. Biopunk focuses on biotechnology and subversives. Related genres Speculative fiction fantasy and horror For more details on this topic see Speculative fiction. The broader category of speculative fiction64 includes science fiction fantasy alternate histories (which may have no particular scientific or futuristic component) and even literary stories that contain fantastic elements such as the work of Jorge Luis Borges or John Barth. For some editors magic realism is considered to be within the broad definition of speculative fiction.65 Fantasy Main article: Fantasy Fantasy is closely associated with science fiction and many writers have worked in both genres while writers such as Anne McCaffrey Ursula K. LeGuin and Marion Zimmer Bradley have written works that appear to blur the boundary between the two related genres.66 The authors' professional organization is called the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA).67 SF conventions routinely have programming on fantasy topics686970 and fantasy authors such as J. K. Rowling have won the highest honor within the science fiction field the Hugo Award.71 In general science fiction is the literature of things that might someday be possible and fantasy is the literature of things that are inherently impossible.13 Magic and mythology are popular themes in fantasy.72 Fredric Jameson meanwhile has characterized the difference between the two genres by describing science fiction as turning "on a formal framework determined by concepts of the mode of production rather than those of religion" - that is science fiction texts are bound by an inner logic based more on historical materialism than on magic or the forces of good and evil.73 Some narratives are described as being essentially science fiction but "with fantasy elements". The term "science fantasy" is sometimes used to describe such material.74 Frankenstein (1931) film poster Horror fiction Main article: Horror fiction Horror fiction is the literature of the unnatural and supernatural with the aim of unsettling or frightening the reader sometimes with graphic violence. Historically it has also been known as weird fiction. Although horror is not per se a branch of science fiction many works of horror literature incorporates science fictional elements. One of the defining classical works of horror Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein is the first fully-realized work of science fiction where the manufacture of the monster is given a rigorous science-fictional grounding. The works of Edgar Allan Poe also helped define both the science fiction and the horror genres.75 Today horror is one of the most popular categories of films.76 Horror is often mistakenly categorized as science fiction at the point of distribution by libraries video rental outlets etc. For example Syfy (distributed via cable and satellite television in the United States) currently devotes a majority of its air time to horror films with very few science fiction titles. Mystery fiction Main article: Mystery fiction Works in which science and technology are a dominant theme but based on current reality may be considered mainstream fiction. Much of the thriller genre would be included such as the novels of Tom Clancy or Michael Crichton or the James Bond films.77 Modernist works from writers like Kurt Vonnegut Philip K. Dick and Stanisaw Lem have focused on speculative or existential perspectives on contemporary reality and are on the borderline between SF and the mainstream.78 According to Robert J. Sawyer "Science fiction and mystery have a great deal in common. Both prize the intellectual process of puzzle solving and both require stories to be plausible and hinge on the way things really do work."79 Isaac Asimov Walter Mosley and other writers incorporate mystery elements in their science fiction and vice versa.citation needed Superhero fiction Main article: Superhero fiction Superhero fiction is a genre characterized by beings with much higher than usual capability and prowess generally with a desire or need to help the citizens of their chosen country or world by using his or her powers to defeat natural or superpowered threats. Many superhero fiction characters involve themselves (either intentionally or accidentally) with science fiction and fact including advanced technologies alien worlds time travel and interdimensional travel; but the standards of scientific plausibility are lower than with actual science fiction. Authors of this genre include Stan Lee (co-creator of Spider-Man the Fantastic Four the X-Men and the Hulk); Marv Wolfman the creator of Blade for Marvel Comics and The New Teen Titans for DC Comics; Dean Wesley Smith (Smallville Spider-Man and X-Men novels) and Superman writers Roger Stern and Elliot S! Maggin. Fandom and community For more details on this topic see Science fiction fandom. Science fiction fandom is the "community of the literature of ideas... the culture in which new ideas emerge and grow before being released into society at large".80 Members of this community "fans" are in contact with each other at conventions or clubs through print or online fanzines or on the Internet using web sites mailing lists and other resources. SF fandom emerged from the letters column in Amazing Stories magazine. Soon fans began writing letters to each other and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines.81 Once they were in regular contact fans wanted to meet each other and they organized local clubs. In the 1930s the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area.82 Conventions clubs and fanzines were the dominant form of fan activity or "fanac" for decades until the Internet facilitated communication among a much larger population of interested people. Awards For more details on this topic see List of science fiction awards. Among the most respected awards for science fiction are the Hugo Award presented by the World Science Fiction Society at Worldcon and the Nebula Award presented by SFWA and voted on by the community of authors. One notable award for science fiction films is the Saturn Award. It is presented annually by The Academy of Science Fiction Fantasy and Horror Films. There are national awards like Canada's Aurora Award regional awards like the Endeavour Award presented at Orycon for works from the Pacific Northwest special interest or subgenre awards like the Chesley Award for art or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls notably the Locus Award. Conventions clubs and organizations For more details on this topic see Science fiction conventions. Pamela Dean reading at Minicon Conventions (in fandom shortened as "cons") are held in cities around the world catering to a local regional national or international membership. General-interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction while others focus on a particular interest like media fandom filking etc. Most are organized by volunteers in non-profit groups though most media-oriented events are organized by commercial promoters. The convention's activities are called the "program" which may include panel discussions readings autograph sessions costume masquerades and other events. Activities that occur throughout the convention are not part of the program; these commonly include a dealer's room art show and hospitality lounge (or "con suites").83 Conventions may host award ceremonies; Worldcons present the Hugo Awards each year. SF societies referred to as "clubs" except in formal contexts form a year-round base of activities for science fiction fans. They may be associated with an ongoing science fiction convention or have regular club meetings or both. Most groups meet in libraries schools and universities community centers pubs or restaurants or the homes of individual members. Long-established groups like the New England Science Fiction Association and the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society have clubhouses for meetings and storage of convention supplies and research materials.84 The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) was founded by Damon Knight in 1965 as a non-profit organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors67 24 years after his essay "Unite or Fie!" had led to the organization of the National Fantasy Fan Federation. Fandom has helped incubate related groups including media fandom85 the Society for Creative Anachronism86 gaming87 filking and furry fandom.88 Fanzines and online fandom For more details on this topic see Science fiction fanzine. The first science fiction fanzine The Comet was published in 1930.89 Fanzine printing methods have changed over the decades from the hectograph the mimeograph and the ditto machine to modern photocopying. Distribution volumes rarely justify the cost of commercial printing. Modern fanzines are printed on computer printers or at local copy shops or they may only be sent as email. The best known fanzine (or "'zine") today is Ansible edited by David Langford winner of numerous Hugo awards. Other fanzines to win awards in recent years include File 770 Mimosa and Plokta.90 Artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field including Brad W. Foster Teddy Harvia and Joe Mayhew; the Hugos include a category for Best Fan Artists.90 The earliest organized fandom online was the SF Lovers community originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text archive file that was updated regularly.91 In the 1980s Usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. In the 1990s the development of the World-Wide Web exploded the community of online fandom by orders of magnitude with thousands and then literally millions of web sites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media.84 Most such sites are small ephemeral and/or very narrowly focused though sites like SF Site offer a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction. Fan fiction For more details on this topic see Fan fiction. Fan fiction known to aficionados as "fanfic" is non-commercial fiction created by fans in the setting of an established book film video game or television series.92 This modern meaning of the term should not be confused with the traditional (pre-1970s) meaning of "fan fiction" within the community of fandom where the term meant original or parody fiction written by fans and published in fanzines often with members of fandom as characters therein ("faan fiction"). Examples of this would include the Goon Defective Agency stories written starting in 1956 by Irish fan John Berry and published in his and Arthur Thomson's fanzine Retribution. In the last few years sites have appeared such as Orion's Arm and Galaxiki which encourage collaborative development of science fiction universes. In some cases the copyright owners of the books films or television series have instructed their lawyers to issue "cease and desist" letters to fans. Science fiction studies For more details on this topic see Science fiction studies. The study of science fiction or science fiction studies is the critical assessment interpretation and discussion of science fiction literature film new media fandom and fan fiction. Science fiction scholars take science fiction as an object of study in order to better understand it and its relationship to science technology politics and culture-at-large. Science fiction studies has a long history dating back to the turn of the 20th century but it was not until later that science fiction studies solidified as a discipline with the publication of the academic journals Extrapolation (1959) Foundation - The International Review of Science Fiction (1972) and Science Fiction Studies (1973) and the establishment of the oldest organizations devoted to the study of science fiction the Science Fiction Research Association and the Science Fiction Foundation in 1970. The field has grown considerably since the 1970s with the establishment of more journals organizations and conferences with ties to the science fiction scholarship community and science fiction degree-granting programs such as those offered by the University of Liverpool and Kansas University. The National Science Foundation has conducted surveys of "Public Attitudes and Public Understanding" of "Science Fiction and Pseudoscience".93 They write that "Interest in science fiction may affect the way people think about or relate to science....one study found a strong relationship between preference for science fiction novels and support for the space program...The same study also found that students who read science fiction are much more likely than other students to believe that contacting extraterrestrial civilizations is both possible and desirable (Bainbridge 1982).94 Science fiction as serious literature Mary Shelley wrote a number of science fiction novels including Frankenstein and is treated as a major Romantic writer.95 Many science fiction works have received widespread critical acclaim including 1984 Brave New World Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep (later the inspiration for the movie Blade Runner) and A Clockwork Orange. The scholar Tom Shippey asks a perennial question of science fiction: What is its relationship to fantasy fiction is its readership still dominated by male adolescents is it a taste which will appeal to the mature but non-eccentric literary mind96 In her much reprinted essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown"97 the science fiction writer Ursula K. Le Guin has approached an answer by first citing the essay written by the English author Virginia Woolf entitled "Mr Bennett and Mrs Brown" in which she states: I believe that all novels deal with character and that it is to express character not to preach doctrines sing songs or celebrate the glories of the British Empire that the form of the novel so clumsy verbose and undramatic so rich elastic and alive has been evolved The great novelists have brought us to see whatever they wish us to see through some character. Otherwise they would not be novelists but poets historians or pamphleteers. Le Guin argues that these criteria may be successfully applied to works of science fiction and so answers in the affirmative her rhetorical question posed at the beginning of her essay: Can a science fiction writer write a novel Tom Shippey96 in his essay does not dispute this answer but identifies and discusses the essential differences that exists between a science fiction novel and one written outside the field. To this end he compares George Orwells Coming Up for Air with Frederik Pohl and C. M. Kornbluths The Space Merchants and concludes that the basic building block and distinguishing feature of a science fiction novel is the presence of the novum a term Darko Suvin adapts from Ernst Bloch and defines as a discrete piece of information recognizable as not-true but also as not-unlike-true not-flatly- (and in the current state of knowledge) impossible.98 In science fiction the style of writing is often relatively clear and straightforward compared to classical literature. Orson Scott Card an author of both science fiction and non-SF fiction has postulated that in science fiction the message and intellectual significance of the work is contained within the story itself and therefore there need not be stylistic gimmicks or literary games; but that many writers and critics confuse clarity of language with lack of artistic merit. In Card's words: ...a great many writers and critics have based their entire careers on the premise that anything that the general public can understand without mediation is worthless drivel. ... If everybody came to agree that stories should be told this clearly the professors of literature would be out of job and the writers of obscure encoded fiction would be not honored but pitied for their impenetrability.".99 Science fiction author and physicist Gregory Benford has declared that: "SF is perhaps the defining genre of the twentieth century although its conquering armies are still camped outside the Rome of the literary citadels."100 This sense of exclusion was articulated by Jonathan Lethem in an essay published in the Village Voice entitled "Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction."101 Lethem suggests that the point in 1973 when Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow was nominated for the Nebula Award and was passed over in favor of Arthur C. Clarke's Rendezvous with Rama stands as "a hidden tombstone marking the death of the hope that SF was about to merge with the mainstream." Among the responses to Lethem was one from the editor of the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction who asked: "When is it the SF genre ever going to realize it can't win the game of trying to impress the mainstream"102 On this point the journalist and author David Barnett has remarked:103 The ongoing endless war between "literary" fiction and "genre" fiction has well-defined lines in the sand. Genre's foot soldiers think that literary fiction is a collection of meaningless but prettily drawn pictures of the human condition. The literary guard consider genre fiction to be crass commercial whizz-bang potboilers. Or so it goes. Barnett in an earlier essay had pointed to a new development in this "endless war":104 What do novels about a journey across post-apocalyptic America a clone waitress rebelling against a future society a world-girdling pipe of special gas keeping mutant creatures at bay a plan to rid a colonizable new world of dinosaurs and genetic engineering in a collapsed civilization have in common They are all most definitely not science fiction. Literary readers will probably recognise The Road by Cormac McCarthy one of the sections of Cloud Atlas by David Mitchell The Gone-Away World by Nick Harkaway Stone Gods by Jeanette Winterson and Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood from their descriptions above. All of these novels use the tropes of what most people recognize as science fiction but their authors or publishers have taken great pains to ensure that they are not categorized as such. Science fiction world-wide Although perhaps most developed as a genre and community in the US and UK science fiction is a worldwide phenomenon. Organisations devoted to promoting SF in particular countries and in non-English languages are common as are country- or language-specific genre awards. Africa and African diaspora Masimba Musodza a Zimbabwean author published MunaHacha Maive Nei the first science-fiction novel in the Shona language105 which also holds the distinction of being the first novel in the Shona language to appear as an ebook. Asia Main articles: Science fiction of Bangladesh Science fiction in China and Science fiction in Japan Europe Soviet stamp part of a 1967 series depicting science fiction images. The caption runs On the moon. Space science fiction Russian pronunciation: n lne ksmitskj fntastk. Main articles: Science fiction in Croatia Czech science fiction and fantasy French science fiction Norwegian science fiction Science fiction in Poland Romanian science fiction Science fiction in Russia Science fiction in Serbia and Spanish science fiction Germany and Austria: Current well-known SF authors from Germany are five-time Kurd-Lawitz-Award winner Andreas Eschbach whose books The Carpet Makers and Eine Billion Dollar are big successes and Frank Schtzing who in his book The Swarm mixes elements of the science thriller with SF elements to an apocalyptic scenario. The most prominent German-speaking author according to Die Zeit is Austrian Herbert W. Franke. A well known science fiction book series in German is Perry Rhodan which started in 1961. Having sold over one billion copies (in pulp format) it claims to be the most successful science fiction book series ever written worldwide.106 France and French-speaking countries: A particular trend in French literature has consisted of notorious French authors releasing science-fiction works alongside their more classical production and through the same channels refusing to endorse the science-fiction label probably out of a mix of snobbishness and chauvinism (science-fiction being considered by most academics as an inferior genre from America). Among these lie famous novels and short stories by Ren Barjavel and Robert Merle for example.citation needed There is nevertheless a dedicated science-fiction scene in French literature: see main article. In Belgian and French movies science-fiction is represented but not nearly as much as drama comedy or historical film. In Belgian and French comic books on the other hand science-fiction is among other a well established (and often pessimistic) genre.citation needed Oceania Main article: Science fiction in Australia Australia: David G. Hartwell noted that while there is perhaps "nothing essentially Australian about Australian science-fiction" many Australian science-fiction (and fantasy and horror) writers are in fact international English language writers and their work is commonly published worldwide. This is further explainable by the fact that the Australian inner market is small (with Australian population being around 21 million) and sales abroad are crucial to most Australian writers.107108 North America Main article: Canadian science fiction See also List of science fiction themes List of science fiction authors List of science fiction novels List of science fiction films List of science fiction television programs Non-Aristotelian logicuse in science fiction Science fiction libraries and museums Sense of Wonder Skiffy Transhumanism (a school of thought profoundly inspired by SF) Notes and references Notes "Science fiction - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". merriam-webster.com. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science%20fiction. 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Retrieved 2007-01-16.  "Anne McCaffrey". tor.com. 1999-08-16. Archived from the original on November 9 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061109201854/http://www.tor.com/sites/legends/mccaffreybio.html. Retrieved 2007-01-24.  a b "Information About SFWA". Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Inc.. Archived from the original on December 24 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051224090923/http://sfwa.org/org/sfwainfo.htm. Retrieved 2006-01-16.  Peggy Rae Sapienza and Judy Kindell (2006-03-23). "Student Science Fiction and Fantasy Contest". L.A.con IV. http://www.laconiv.org/2006/prog/contest.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-16.  Steven H Silver (2000-09-39). "Program notes". Chicon 2000. Archived from the original on December 10 2000. http://web.archive.org/web/20001210133300/http://www.chicon.org/prog/prog.htm. Retrieved 2001-01-16.  Carol Berg. "Links "Conventions and Writers' Workshops"". http://www.sff.net/people/carolberg/links.html#conventions. Retrieved 2001-01-16.  "The Hugo Awards By Category". World Science Fiction Society. 2006-07-26. http://www.worldcon.org/hc.html. Retrieved 2006-01-16.  Robert B. Marks (1997-05). "On Incorporating Mythology into Fantasy or How to Write Mythical Fantasy in 752 Easy Steps". Story and Myth. http://home.istar.ca/delric/Myth.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-16.  Jameson Fredric (2007). Archaeologies of the Future: This Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions. London and New York: Verso. pp. 58-9.  Elkins Charles (1980-11). "Recent Bibliographies of Science Fiction and Fantasy". Science Fiction Studies. http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/reviewessays/elkins22.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-16.  David Carroll and Kyla Ward (1993-05). "The Horror Timeline "Part I: Pre-20th Century"". Burnt Toast (#13). http://www.tabula-rasa.info/DarkAges/Timeline1.html. Retrieved 2001-01-16.  Chad Austin. "Horror Films Still Scaring  and Delighting  Audiences". North Carolina State University News. Archived from the original on January 8 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070108195901/http://news.ncsu.edu/features/103106HorrorFilms.htm. Retrieved 2006-01-16.  "Utopian ideas hidden inside Dystopian sf". False Positives. 2006-11. http://www.falsepositives.com/index.php/2005/11/22/utopian-ideas-hidden-inside-dystopian-sf/. Retrieved 2007-01-16.  Glenn Joshua (2000-12-22). "Philip K. Dick (19281982)". Hermenaut (#13). http://www.hermenaut.com/a4.shtml. Retrieved 2007-01-16.  McBride Jim (1997-11). "Spotlight On... Robert J. Sawyer". Fingerprints (Crime Writes of Canada) (November 1997). http://www.sfwriter.com/arcwc.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-08.  von Thorn Alexander (2002-08). Aurora Award acceptance speech. Calgary Alberta.  Wertham Fredric (1973). The World of Fanzines. Carbondale & Evanston: Southern Illinois University Press.  "Fancyclopedia I: C  Cosmic Circle". fanac.org. 1999-08-12. http://fanac.org/FannishReferenceWorks/Fancyclopedia/FancyclopediaI/c.html. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  Lawrence Watt-Evans (1000-03-15). "What Are Science Fiction Conventions Like". http://www.watt-evans.com/whataresfconventionslike.html. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  a b Mike Glyer (1998-11). "Is Your Club Dead Yet" (  Scholar search). File 770 (127). http://ourworld.cs.com/mikeglyer/F770/club/index.html. Retrieved 2007-01-17. dead link Robert Runte (2003). "History of sf Fandom". http://www.uleth.ca/edu/runte/ncfguide/fandom.htm#invasion. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  "Origins of the Middle Kingdom". Folump Enterprises. 1994. http://www.midrealm.org/midrealmorigins.html. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  Ken St. Andre (2006-02-03). "History". Central Arizona Science Fiction Society. Archived from the original on December 6 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061206133219/http://www.casfs.org/history.html. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  Patten Fred (2006). Furry! The World's Best Anthropomorphic Fiction. ibooks.  Rob Hansen (2003-08-13). "British Fanzine Bibliography". http://www.fiawol.demon.co.uk/biblio/. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  a b "Hugo Awards by Category". World Science Fiction Society. 2006-07-26. http://www.wsfs.org/hc.html. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  Keith Lynch (1994-07-14). "History of the Net is Important". http://keithlynch.net/history.net.html. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2003. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/fanfic. Retrieved 2007-01-17.  National Science Foundation survey: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Public Understanding. Science Fiction and Pseudoscience. Bainbridge W.S. 1982. "The Impact of Science Fiction on Attitudes Toward Technology." In E.M. Emme ed. Science Fiction and Space Futures: Past and Present. San Diego CA: Univelt. Bennett An Introduction ix xi 12021; Schor Introduction to Cambridge Companion 15; Seymour 54861. a b Shippey Tom (1991) Fictional Space. Essays on Contemporary Science Fiction page 2 Humanities Press International Inc. NJ Le Guin Ursula K. (1976) "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown" in The Language of the Night: Essays on Fantasy and Science Fiction Perennial HarperCollins Revised edition 1993. in Science Fiction at Large (Edited by Peter Nichols) Gollancz London 1976 in Explorations of the Marvellous (Edited by Peter Nichols) Fontana London 1978 in Speculations on Speculation. Theories of Science Fiction (Edited by James Gunn and Matthew Candelaria) The Scarecrow Press Inc. Maryland 2005 Suvin Darko (1979) Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: On the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre New Haven page 63-84 Card O.:Ender's Game Introduction. Macmillan 2006 Benford Gregory (1998) "Meaning-Stuffed Dreams:Thomas Disch and the future fo SF" New York Review of Science Fiction September Number 121 Vol. 11 No. 1 pp Lethem Jonathan ((1998)"Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction" Village Voice June. Also reprinted in a slightly expanded version under the title "Why can't we All Live Together: A Vision of Genre Paradise Lost" in the New York Review of Science Fiction September 1998 Number 121 Vol 11 No. 1 Van Gelder Gordon (1998) "Editorial" Fantasy and Science Fiction October/November v95 #4/5 #567 Barnett David. "Gaiman's choice: shouldn't good writing tell a story too" The Guardian London June 23 2010 Barnett David. "Science fiction: the genre that dare not speak its name" The Guardian London January 28 2009 http://nehandaradio.com/2011/06/07/first-science-fiction-novel-in-shona/ Perry-Rhodan-USA.com (September 8 1996). "Perry Rhodan 35th anniversary". Press release. http://www.perry-rhodan-usa.com/web1998/rdnpres.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-26.  David G. Hartwell Damien Broderick (ed.) Centaurus: The best of Australian science fiction Damien Broderick Introduction p.10-21 Tor Books 1999m ISBN 0-312-86556-2 David G. Hartwell Damien Broderick (ed.) Centaurus: The best of Australian science fiction David. G. Hartwell The other editor's introduction ibid. p.22-25 Tor Books 1999m ISBN 0-312-86556-2 References Barron Neil ed. Anatomy of Wonder: A Critical Guide to Science Fiction (5th ed.). Westport Conn.: Libraries Unlimited 2004. ISBN 1-59158-171-0. Broderick Damien. Reading by Starlight: Postmodern Science Fiction. London: Routledge 1995. Print. Clute John Science Fiction: The Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley 1995. ISBN 0-7513-0202-3. Clute John and Peter Nicholls eds. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. St Albans Herts UK: Granada Publishing 1979. ISBN 0-586-05380-8. Clute John and Peter Nicholls eds. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St Martin's Press 1995. ISBN 0-312-13486-X. Disch Thomas M. The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of. New York: The Free Press 1998. ISBN 978-0-684-82405-5. Jameson Fredric. Archaeologies of the Future: This Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions. London and New York: Verso 2005. Reginald Robert. Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature 19751991. Detroit MI/Washington D.C./London: Gale Research 1992. ISBN 0-8103-1825-3. Suvin Darko. Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: on the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre. New Haven : Yale University Press 1979. Weldes Jutta ed. To Seek Out New Worlds: Exploring Links between Science Fiction and World Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2003. ISBN 0-312-29557-X. Westfahl Gary ed. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes Works and Wonders (three volumes). Westport Conn.: Greenwood Press 2005. Wolfe Gary K. Critical Terms for Science Fiction and Fantasy: A Glossary and Guide to Scholarship. New York: Greenwood Press 1986. ISBN 0-313-22981-3. External links Find more about Science fiction on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Science Fiction (Bookshelf) at Project Gutenberg SF Hubresources for science-fiction research created by the University of Liverpool Library Science fiction fanzines (current and historical) online Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of Americatheir "Suggested Reading" page Science Fiction Museum & Hall of Fame Science Fiction Research Association Science Fiction at the Internet Archive v d eScience fiction Media Animation  Anime and manga  Comics  Films (list)  Games (board  role-playing  video)  Literature (magazines  novels  poetry  stories)  Opera  Radio  Television (films  list  sitcoms)  Theatre Creators Artists (list)  Authors  Editors Subgenres Hard  Soft  Alternate history  Apocalyptic  Christian  Comedy  Cyberpunk (derivatives)  Dying Earth  Feminist  Social science fiction  Libertarian  Military  Planetary romance  Recursive  Space opera  Sword and planet  Tech noir  Science fiction Western  Space Western Related genres Fantasy (Science fantasy)  Mystery  Horror  Slipstream  Speculative (Weird)  Superhero Themes Artificial intelligence  Extraterrestrials (First contact)  Floating city  Lost World  Mind uploading  Planets  Politics (Utopia/Dystopia  World government)  Religion (Ideas)  Resizing  Sex (Homosexuality  Gender  Reproduction)  Simulated realities/Virtual worlds  Space warfare (Weapons)  Superpowers  Timeline (Alternate future  Future history  Hyperspace  Parallel universes  Slipstream  Time travel) Subculture Fandom: Conventions (list  by date)  Organizations  by Nationality Studies: Definitions  History  New Wave  Journals  Awards  Libraries and Museums by Country Australia  Bangladesh  Canada  China  Croatia  Czech Republic  France  Japan  Norway  Poland  Romania  Russia/Soviet Union  Serbia  Spain  Portal     Category