For other uses see Ship (disambiguation). Ship Italian full-rigged ship Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor 1976

A ship ( Audio (helpinfo)) is a large buoyant marine vessel. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on size and cargo or passenger capacity. Ships may be found on lakes seas and rivers and they allow for a variety of activities such as the transport of people or goods fishing entertainment public safety and warfare. Historically a ship referred to a vessel with sails rigged in a specific manner.

Ships and boats have developed alongside mankind. In major wars and in day to day life they have become an integral part of modern commercial and military systems. Fishing boats are used by millions of fishermen throughout the world. Military forces operate highly sophisticated vessels to transport and support forces ashore. Commercial vessels nearly 35000 in number carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2007.1

These vessels were also key in history's great explorations and scientific and technological development. Navigators such as Zheng He spread such inventions as the compass and gunpowder. Ships have been used for such purposes as colonization and the slave trade and have served scientific cultural and humanitarian needs. New crops that had come from the Americas via the European seafarers in the 16th century significantly contributed to the world's population growth.2

As Thor Heyerdahl demonstrated with his tiny craft the Kon-Tiki it is possible to navigate long distances upon a simple log raft. From Mesolithic canoes to today's powerful nuclear-powered aircraft carriers ships tell the history of human technological development. Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 History 2.1 Prehistory and antiquity 2.2 Renaissance 2.3 Specialization and modernization 2.4 Today 3 Types of ships 3.1 Commercial vessels 3.2 Naval vessels 3.3 Fishing vessels 3.4 Weather vessels 3.5 Inland and coastal boats 4 Architecture 4.1 The hull 4.2 Propulsion systems 4.3 Steering systems 4.4 Holds compartments and the superstructure 4.5 Equipment 5 Design considerations 5.1 Hydrostatics 5.2 Hydrodynamics 6 Lifecycle 6.1 Design 6.2 Construction 6.3 Repair and conversion 6.4 End of service 7 Measuring ships 8 Ship pollution 8.1 Oil spills 8.2 Ballast water 8.3 Exhaust emissions 8.4 Ship breaking 9 Buoyancy 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References Nomenclature Main parts of ship. 1: Smokestack or Funnel; 2: Stern; 3: Propeller and Rudder; 4: Portside (the right side is known as starboard); 5: Anchor; 6: Bulbous bow; 7: Bow; 8: Deck; 9: Superstructure For more details on this topic see Glossary of nautical terms.

Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ship's ability to operate independently for extended periods.3 A commonly used rule of thumb is that if one vessel can carry another the larger of the two is a ship.4 As dinghies are common on sailing yachts as small as 35 feet (10.67 m) this rule of thumb is not foolproof. In a more technical and now rare sense the term ship refers to a sailing ship with at least 3 square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit with lesser ships described by their sailplan (e.g. barque brigantine etc.).

A number of large vessels are traditionally referred to as boats. Submarines are a prime example.5 Other types of large vessels which are traditionally called boats are the Great Lakes freighter the riverboat and the ferryboat.citation needed Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes these vessels are designed for operation on inland or protected coastal waters.

In most maritime traditions ships have an individual name and modern ships may belong to a ship class often named after its first ship. In English a ship is traditionally referred to as "she" even if named after a man but as of the 2000s this figure of speech is in decline and journalistic style guides advise to use "it".6 History Further information: Maritime history Prehistory and antiquity A raft is among the simplest boat designs.

The history of boats parallels the human adventure. The first known boats date back to the Neolithic Period about 10000 years ago. These early vessels had limited function: they could move on water but that was it. They were used mainly for hunting and fishing. The oldest dugout canoes found by archaeologists were often cut from coniferous tree logs using simple stone tools.

By around 3000 BC Ancient Egyptians already knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull.7 They used woven straps to lash the planks together7 and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.78 The Greek historian and geographer Agatharchides had documented ship-faring among the early Egyptians: "During the prosperous period of the Old Kingdom between the 30th and 25th centuries B. C. the river-routes were kept in order and Egyptian ships sailed the Red Sea as far as the myrrh-country."9 Sneferu's ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded (2613 BCE) to a ship being referred to by name.10 By about 2000 BC Minoan civilization in Crete had evolved into a naval power exercising effective control of the sea in the eastern Mediterranean.11 It is known that ancient Nubia/Axum traded with India and there is evidence that ships from Northeast Africa may have sailed back and forth between India/Sri Lanka and Nubia trading goods and even to Persia Himyar and Rome.12 Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece and Yemen.13 Elsewhere in Northeast Africa the Periplus of the Red Sea reports that Somalis through their northern ports such as Zeila and Berbera were trading frankincense and other items with the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula well before the arrival of Islam as well as with then Roman-controlled Egypt.14 A panel found at Mohenjodaro depicting a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru an ancient Indian text on Ship-building. This treatise gives a technocratic exposition on the technique of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships their sizes the materials from which they were built. The Yukti Kalpa Taru sums up in a condensed form all the available information The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and date to prove that in ancient times Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. Apart from describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitability in shipbuilding the Yukti Kalpa Taru also gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size. The ancient Egyptians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their shipbuilding skills was the Khufu ship a vessel 143 feet (44 m) in length entombed at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza around 2500 BC and found intact in 1954. According to Herodotus the Egyptians made the first circumnavigation of Africa around 600 BC. The Phoenicians and Greeks gradually mastered navigation at sea aboard triremes exploring and colonizing the Mediterranean via ship. Around 340 BC the Greek navigator Pytheas of Massalia ventured from Greece to Western Europe and Great Britain.15 In the course of the 2nd century BC Rome went on to destroy Carthage and subdue the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean achieving complete mastery of the inland sea that they called Mare Nostrum. The monsoon wind system of the Indian Ocean was first sailed by Greek navigator Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 118 BC.16 With 300 Greek ships a year sailing between Roman Empire and India the annual trade may have reached 300000 tons.17 In China by the time of the Zhou Dynasty ship technologies such as stern mounted rudders were developed and by the Han Dynasty a well kept naval fleet was an integral part of the military. Ship technology advanced to the point where by the medieval period water tight compartments were developed. Roman trireme mosaic from Carthage Bardo Museum Tunis. The Swahili people had various extensive trading ports dotting the coast of medieval East Africa and Great Zimbabwe had extensive trading contacts with Central Africa and likely also imported goods brought to Africa through the Southeast African shore trade of Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania.18 It is known by historians that at its height the Mali Empire built a large naval fleet under Emperor Mansa Musa in the late 13th and early 14th century.19 Arabic sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a Mali fleet in 1311.20 At about the same time people living near Kongens Lyngby in Denmark invented the segregated hull which allowed the size of boats to gradually be increased. Boats soon developed into keel boats similar to today's wooden pleasure craft. The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat these sails gave early ships range. This allowed men to explore widely allowing for example the settlement of Oceania about 3000 years ago. The Battle of Lepanto 1571 naval engagement between allied Christian forces and the Ottoman Turks. Before the introduction of the compass celestial navigation was the main method for navigation at sea. In China early versions of the magnetic compass were being developed and used in navigation between 1040 and 1117.21 The true mariner's compass using a pivoting needle in a dry box was invented in Europe no later than 1300.2223 Renaissance Until the Renaissance navigational technology remained comparatively primitive. This absence of technology did not prevent some civilizations from becoming sea powers. Examples include the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice Hanseatic League and the Byzantine navy. The Vikings used their knarrs to explore North America trade in the Baltic Sea and plunder many of the coastal regions of Western Europe. A replica of the carrack Santa Mara of Christopher Columbus Towards the end of the 14th century ships like the carrack began to develop towers on the bow and stern. These towers decreased the vessel's stability and in the 15th century the caravel designed by the Portuguese based on the Arabic qarib which could sail closer to the wind became more widely used. The towers were gradually replaced by the forecastle and sterncastle as in the carrack Santa Mara of Christopher Columbus. This increased freeboard allowed another innovation: the freeing port and the artillery associated with it. A Japanese atakebune from the 16th century In the 16th century the use of freeboard and freeing ports become widespread on galleons. The English modified their vessels to maximize their firepower and demonstrated the effectiveness of their doctrine in 1588 by defeating the Spanish Armada. At this time ships were developing in Asia in much the same way as Europe. Japan used defensive naval techniques in the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1281. It is likely that the Mongols of the time took advantage of both European and Asian shipbuilding techniques. During the 15th century China's Ming Dynasty assembled one of the largest and most powerful naval fleet in the world for the diplomatic and power projection voyages of Zheng He. Elsewhere in Korea in the 15th century one of the world's first iron-clads the turtle ship was also developed. In Japan during the Sengoku era from the fifteenth to 17th century the great struggle for feudal supremacy was fought in part by coastal fleets of several hundred boats including the atakebune. Model of a medieval Mogadishan ship. During the Age of the Ajuuraan the Somali sultanates and republics of Merca Mogadishu Barawa Hobyo and their respective ports flourished enjoying a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia India Venetia24 Persia Egypt Portugal and as far away as China. In the 16th century Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in what is modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices for which they in return received gold wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat wheat barley horses and fruit on the coastal markets which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.25 Middle Age Swahili Kingdoms are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes26 with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians as "metropolises".27 Famous African trade ports such as Mombasa Zanzibar and Kilwa28 were known to Chinese sailors such as Zheng He and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager Abu Abdullah ibn Battua.29 In the 14th century CE King Abubakari I the brother of King Mansa Musa of the Mali Empire is thought to have had a great armada of ships sitting on the coast of West Africa.30 This is corroborated by ibn Battuta himself who recalls several hundred Malian ships off the coast.31 This has led to great speculation with historical evidence that it is possible that Malian sailors may have reached the coast of Pre-Columbian America under the rule of Abubakari II nearly two hundred years before Christopher Columbus32 and that black traders may have been in the Americas before Columbus.33 Replica of Magellans Victoria. Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition that circumnavigated the globe in 1519-1522. Fifty years before Christopher Columbus Chinese navigator Zheng He traveled the world at the head of what was for the time a huge armada. The largest of his ships had nine masts were 130 metres (430 ft) long and had a beam of 55 metres (180 ft). His fleet carried 30000 men aboard 70 vessels with the goal of bringing glory to the Chinese emperor. The carrack and then the caravel were developed in Iberia. After Columbus European exploration rapidly accelerated and many new trade routes were established.34 In 1498 by reaching India Vasco da Gama proved that the access to the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic was possible. These explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were soon followed by France England and the Netherlands who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean reaching Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642.35 A major sea power the Dutch in 1650 owned 16000 merchant ships.36 In the 17th century Dutch explorers such as Abel Tasman explored the coasts of Australia while in the 18th century it was British explorer James Cook who mapped much of Polynesia. Specialization and modernization The British HMS Sandwich fires to the French flagship Bucentaure (completely dismasted) into battle off Trafalgar. The Bucentaure also fights HMS Victory (behind her) and HMS Temeraire (left side of the picture). In fact HMS Sandwich never fought at Trafalgar it's a mistake from Auguste Mayer the painter.37 Parallel to the development of warships ships in service of marine fishery and trade also developed in the period between antiquity and the Renaissance. Still primarily a coastal endeavor fishing is largely practiced by individuals with little other money using small boats. Maritime trade was driven by the development of shipping companies with significant financial resources. Canal barges towed by draft animals on an adjacent towpath contended with the railway up to and past the early days of the industrial revolution. Flat-bottomed and flexible scow boats also became widely used for transporting small cargoes. Mercantile trade went hand-in-hand with exploration self-financed by the commercial benefits of exploration. During the first half of the 18th century the French Navy began to develop a new type of vessel known as a ship of the line featuring seventy-four guns. This type of ship became the backbone of all European fighting fleets. These ships were 56 metres (184 ft) long and their construction required 2800 oak trees and 40 kilometres (25 mi) of rope; they carried a crew of about 800 sailors and soldiers. RMS Titanic departs from Southampton. Her sinking would tighten safety regulations During the 19th century the Royal Navy enforced a ban on the slave trade acted to suppress piracy and continued to map the world. A clipper was a very fast sailing ship of the 19th century. The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of steam ships and the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals. Ship designs stayed fairly unchanged until the late 19th century. The industrial revolution new mechanical methods of propulsion and the ability to construct ships from metal triggered an explosion in ship design. Factors including the quest for more efficient ships the end of long running and wasteful maritime conflicts and the increased financial capacity of industrial powers created an avalanche of more specialized boats and ships. Ships built for entirely new functions such as firefighting rescue and research also began to appear. In light of this classification of vessels by type or function can be difficult. Even using very broad functional classifications such as fishery trade military and exploration fails to classify most of the old ships. This difficulty is increased by the fact that the terms such as sloop and frigate are used by old and new ships alike and often the modern vessels sometimes have little in common with their predecessors. Today The Colombo Express one of the largest container ships in the world owned and operated by Hapag-Lloyd of Germany In 2007 the world's fleet included 34882 commercial vessels with gross tonnage of more than 1000 tons38 totaling 1.04 billion tons.1 These ships carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2006 a sum that grew by 8% over the previous year.1 In terms of tonnage 39% of these ships are tankers 26% are bulk carriers 17% container ships and 15% were other types.1 In 2002 there were 1240 warships operating in the world not counting small vessels such as patrol boats. The United States accounted for 3 million tons worth of these vessels Russia 1.35 million tons the United Kingdom 504660 tons and China 402830 tons. The 20th century saw many naval engagements during the two world wars the Cold War and the rise to power of naval forces of the two blocs. The world's major powers have recently used their naval power in cases such as the United Kingdom in the Falkland Islands and the United States in Iraq. The size of the world's fishing fleet is more difficult to estimate. The largest of these are counted as commercial vessels but the smallest are legion. Fishing vessels can be found in most seaside villages in the world. As of 2004 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated 4 million fishing vessels were operating worldwide.39 The same study estimated that the world's 29 million fishermen40 caught 85800000 tonnes (84400000 LT; 94600000 ST) of fish and shellfish that year.41 Types of ships See also: List of types of naval vessels and List of boat types Ships are difficult to classify mainly because there are so many criteria to base classification on. One classification is based on propulsion; with ships categorised as either a sailing ship a Steamship or a motorship. Sailing ships are ships which are propelled solely by means of sails. Steamships are ships which are propelled by steam engines. Motorships are ships which use internal combustion engines as a means to propel themselves. Motorships include ships that propel itself through the use of both sail and mechanical means. Other classification systems exist that use criteria such as: The number of hulls giving categories like monohull catamaran trimaran. The shape and size giving categories like dinghy keelboat and icebreaker. The building materials used giving steel aluminum wood fiberglass and plastic. The type of propulsion system used giving human-propelled mechanical and sails. The epoch in which the vessel was used triremes of Ancient Greece men of war in the 18th century. The geographic origin of the vessel many vessels are associated with a particular region such as the pinnace of Northern Europe the gondolas of Venice and the junks of China. The manufacturer series or class. Another way to categorize ships and boats is based on their use as described by Paulet and Presles.42 This system includes military ships commercial vessels fishing boats pleasure craft and competitive boats. In this section ships are classified using the first four of those categories and adding a section for lake and river boats and one for vessels which fall outside these categories. Commercial vessels Main article: Commercial vessel Two modern container ships in San Francisco Commercial vessels or merchant ships can be divided into three broad categories: cargo ships passenger ships and special-purpose ships.43 Cargo ships transport dry and liquid cargo. Dry cargo can be transported in bulk by bulk carriers packed directly onto a general cargo ship in break-bulk packed in intermodal containers as aboard a container ship or driven aboard as in roll-on roll-off ships. Liquid cargo is generally carried in bulk aboard tankers such as oil tankers chemical tankers and LNG tankers although smaller shipments may be carried on container ships in tank containers. Passenger ships range in size from small river ferries to giant cruise ships. This type of vessel includes ferries which move passengers and vehicles on short trips; ocean liners which carry passengers on one-way trips; and cruise ships which typically transport passengers on round-trip voyages promoting leisure activities aboard and in the ports they visit. Special-purpose vessels are not used for transport but are designed to perform other specific tasks. Examples include tugboats pilot boats rescue boats cable ships research vessels survey vessels and ice breakers. Most commercial vessels have full hull-forms to maximize cargo capacity.citation needed Hulls are usually made of steel although aluminum can be used on faster craft and fiberglass on the smallest service vessels.citation needed Commercial vessels generally have a crew headed by a captain with deck officers and marine engineers on larger vessels. Special-purpose vessels often have specialized crew if necessary for example scientists aboard research vessels. Commercial vessels are typically powered by a single propeller driven by a diesel engine.citation needed Vessels which operate at the higher end of the speed spectrum may use pump-jet engines or sometimes gas turbine engines.citation needed Naval vessels Main article: Naval ship American aircraft carrier Harry S. Truman and a replenishment ship There are many types of naval vessels currently and through history. Modern naval vessels can be broken down into three categories: warships submarines and support and auxiliary vessels. Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories which are: aircraft carriers cruisers destroyers frigates corvettes submarines and amphibious assault ships. Battleships encompass an eighth category but are not in current service with any navy in the world.44 Most military submarines are either attack submarines or ballistic missile submarines. Until the end of World War II the primary role of the diesel/electric submarine was anti-ship warfare inserting and removing covert agents and military forces and intelligence-gathering. With the development of the homing torpedo better sonar systems and nuclear propulsion submarines also became able to effectively hunt each other. The development of submarine-launched nuclear missiles and submarine-launched cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons. Most navies also include many types of support and auxiliary vessels such as minesweepers patrol boats offshore patrol vessels replenishment ships and hospital ships which are designated medical treatment facilities.45 Combat vessels like cruisers and destroyers usually have fine hulls to maximize speed and maneuverability.46 They also usually have advanced electronics and communication systems as well as weapons. Fishing vessels Main article: Fishing vessels The Albatun Dos a tuna boat at work near Victoria Seychelles Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture the type of fish they catch the fishing method used geographical origin and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004 the world's fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels.39 Of these 1.3 million were decked vessels with enclosed areas and the rest were open vessels.39 Most decked vessels were mechanized but two-thirds of the open vessels were traditional craft propelled by sails and oars.39 More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels47 were built in Japan Peru the Russian Federation Spain or the United States of America.48 Fishing boats are generally small often little more than 30 meters (98 ft) but up to 100 metres (330 ft) for a large tuna or whaling ship. Aboard a fish processing vessel the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Special purpose vessels have special gear. For example trawlers have winches and arms stern-trawlers have a rear ramp and tuna seiners have skiffs. In 2004 85800000 tonnes (84400000 LT; 94600000 ST) of fish were caught in the marine capture fishery.49 Anchoveta represented the largest single catch at 10700000 tonnes (10500000 LT; 11800000 ST).49 That year the top ten marine capture species also included Alaska pollock Blue whiting Skipjack tuna Atlantic herring Chub mackerel Japanese anchovy Chilean jack mackerel Largehead hairtail and Yellowfin tuna.49 Other species including salmon shrimp lobster clams squid and crab are also commercially fished. Modern commercial fishermen use many methods. One is fishing by nets such as purse seine beach seine lift nets gillnets or entangling nets. Another is trawling including bottom trawl. Hooks and lines are used in methods like long-line fishing and hand-line fishing. Another method is the use of fishing trap. Weather vessels Main article: Weather ship The weather ship MS Polarfront at sea. A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in weather forecasting. Surface weather observations were taken hourly and four radiosonde releases occurred daily.50 It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights.5051 Proposed as early as 1927 by the aviation community52 the establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a global network of weather ships in 1948 with 13 to be supplied by the United States.51 This number was eventually negotiated down to nine.53 Their crews were normally out to sea for three weeks at a time returning back to port for 10 day stretches.50 Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies as they did not avoid weather systems like other ships tended to for safety reasons.54 They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea such as tropical cyclones.55 The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the Great Storm of 1987.56 Beginning in the 1970s their role became largely superseded by weather buoys due to the ships' significant cost.57 The agreement of the use of weather ships by the international community ended in 1990. The last weather ship was Polarfront known as weather station M ("Mike") which was put out of operation on 1 January 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation. Inland and coastal boats See also: Riverboat and Barge Passenger ship of Kln-Dsseldorfer on the river Rhine Many types of boats and ships are designed for inland and coastal waterways. These are the vessels that trade upon the lakes rivers and canals. Barges are a prime example of inland vessels. Flat-bottomed boats built to transport heavy goods most barges are not self-propelled and need to be moved by tugboats towing or towboats pushing them. Barges towed along canals by draft animals on an adjacent towpath contended with the railway in the early industrial revolution but were out competed in the carriage of high value items because of the higher speed falling costs and route flexibility of rail transport. Riverboats and inland ferries are specially designed to carry passengers cargo or both in the challenging river environment. Rivers present special hazards to vessels. They usually have varying water flows that alternately lead to high speed water flows or protruding rock hazards. Changing siltation patterns may cause the sudden appearance of shoal waters and often floating or sunken logs and trees (called snags) can endanger the hulls and propulsion of riverboats. Riverboats are generally of shallow draft being broad of beam and rather square in plan with a low freeboard and high topsides. Riverboats can survive with this type of configuration as they do not have to withstand the high winds or large waves that are seen on large lakes seas or oceans. Lake freighters also called lakers are cargo vessels that ply the Great Lakes. The most well-known is the SS Edmund Fitzgerald the latest major vessel to be wrecked on the Lakes. These vessels are traditionally called boats not ships. Visiting ocean-going vessels are called "salties." Because of their additional beam very large salties are never seen inland of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Because the smallest of the Soo Locks is larger than any Seaway lock salties that can pass through the Seaway may travel anywhere in the Great Lakes. Because of their deeper draft salties may accept partial loads on the Great Lakes "topping off" when they have exited the Seaway. Similarly the largest lakers are confined to the Upper Lakes (Superior Michigan Huron Erie) because they are too large to use the Seaway locks beginning at the Welland Canal that bypasses the Niagara River. Since the freshwater lakes are less corrosive to ships than the salt water of the oceans lakers tend to last much longer than ocean freighters. Lakers older than 50 years are not unusual and as of 2005 all were over 20 years of age.58 The St. Mary's Challenger built in 1906 as the William P Snyder is the oldest laker still working on the Lakes. Similarly the E.M. Ford built in 1898 as the Presque Isle was sailing the lakes 98 years later in 1996. As of 2007 the Ford was still afloat as a stationary transfer vessel at a riverside cement silo in Saginaw Michigan. Architecture Further information: Naval architecture Some components exist in vessels of any size and purpose. Every vessel has a hull of sorts. Every vessel has some sort of propulsion whether it's a pole an ox or a nuclear reactor. Most vessels have some sort of steering system. Other characteristics are common but not as universal such as compartments holds a superstructure and equipment such as anchors and winches. The hull A ship's hull endures harsh conditions at sea as illustrated by this reefer ship in bad weather. For a ship to float its weight must be less than that of the water displaced by the ship's hull. There are many types of hulls from logs lashed together to form a raft to the advanced hulls of America's Cup sailboats. A vessel may have a single hull (called a monohull design) two in the case of catamarans or three in the case of trimarans. Vessels with more than three hulls are rare but some experiments have been conducted with designs such as pentamarans. Multiple hulls are generally parallel to each other and connected by rigid arms. Hulls have several elements. The bow is the foremost part of the hull. Many ships feature a bulbous bow. The keel is at the very bottom of the hull extending the entire length of the ship. The rear part of the hull is known as the stern and many hulls have a flat back known as a transom. Common hull appendages include propellers for propulsion rudders for steering and stabilizers to quell a ship's rolling motion. Other hull features can be related to the vessel's work such as fishing gear and sonar domes. Hulls are subject to various hydrostatic and hydrodynamic constraints. The key hydrostatic constraint is that it must be able to support the entire weight of the boat and maintain stability even with often unevenly distributed weight. Hydrodynamic constraints include the ability to withstand shock waves weather collisions and groundings. Older ships and pleasure craft often have or had wooden hulls. Steel is used for most commercial vessels. Aluminium is frequently used for fast vessels and composite materials are often found in sailboats and pleasure craft. Some ships have been made with concrete hulls. Propulsion systems A ship's engineroom Main article: Marine propulsion Propulsion systems for ships fall into three categories: human propulsion sailing and mechanical propulsion. Human propulsion includes rowing which was used even on large galleys. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast supported by stays and spars and controlled by ropes. Sail systems were the dominant form of propulsion until the 19th century. They are now generally used for recreation and competition although experimental sail systems such as the turbosails rotorsails and wingsails have been used on larger modern vessels for fuel savings. Mechanical propulsion systems generally consist of a motor or engine turning a propeller or less frequently an impeller or wave propulsion fins. Steam engines were first used for this purpose but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines outboard motors and gas turbine engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels (see NS Savannah). There are many variations of propeller systems including twin contra-rotating controllable-pitch and nozzle-style propellers. Smaller vessels tend to have a single propeller. Large vessels use multiple propellers supplemented with bow- and stern-thrusters. Power is transmitted from the engine to the propeller by way of a propeller shaft which may or may not be connected to a gearbox. Some modern vessels use electric motors connected directly to the propeller shaft usually powered by generators. These electric systems are often more energy efficient than other systems where the engine is mechanically connected to the propeller. Steering systems The rudder and propeller on a newly built ferry For ships with independent propulsion systems for each side such as manual oars or some paddles59 steering systems may not be necessary. In most designs such as boats propelled by engines or sails a steering system becomes necessary. The most common is a rudder a submerged plane located at the rear of the hull. Rudders are rotated to generate a lateral force which turns the boat. Rudders can be rotated by a tiller manual wheels or electro-hydraulic systems. Autopilot systems combine mechanical rudders with navigation systems. Ducted propellers are sometimes used for steering. Some propulsion systems are inherently steering systems. Examples include the outboard motor the bow thruster and the Z-drive. Some sails such as jibs and the mizzen sail on a ketch rig are used more for steering than propulsion. Holds compartments and the superstructure Larger boats and ships generally have multiple decks and compartments. Separate berthings and heads are found on sailboats over about 25 feet (7.6 m). Fishing boats and cargo ships typically have one or more cargo holds. Most larger vessels have an engine room a galley and various compartments for work. Tanks are used to store fuel engine oil and fresh water. Ballast tanks are equipped to change a ship's trim and modify its stability. Superstructures are found above the main deck. On sailboats these are usually very low. On modern cargo ships they are almost always located near the ship's stern. On passenger ships and warships the superstructure generally extends far forward. Equipment Shipboard equipment varies from ship to ship depending on such factors as the ship's era design area of operation and purpose. Some types of equipment that are widely found include: Masts can be the home of antennas navigation lights radar transponders fog signals and similar devices often required by law. Ground tackle includes equipment such as mooring winches windlasses and anchors. Anchors are used to moor ships in shallow water. They are connected to the ship by a rope or chain. On larger vessels the chain runs through a hawsepipe. Cargo equipment such as cranes and cargo booms are used to load and unload cargo and ship's stores. Safety equipment such as lifeboats liferafts and survival suits are carried aboard many vessels for emergency use. Design considerations Hydrostatics Some vessels like the LCAC can operate in a non-displacement mode. Boats and ships are kept on (or slightly above) the water in three ways: For most vessels known as displacement vessels the vessel's weight is offset by that of the water displaced by the hull. For planing ships and boats such as the hydrofoil the lift developed by the movement of the foil through the water increases with the vessel's speed until the vessel is foilborne. For non-displacement craft such as hovercraft and air-cushion vehicles the vessel is suspended over the water by a cushion of high-pressure air it projects downwards against the surface of the water. A vessel is in equilibrium when the upwards and downwards forces are of equal magnitude. As a vessel is lowered into the water its weight remains constant but the corresponding weight of water displaced by its hull increases. When the two forces are equal the boat floats. If weight is evenly distributed throughout the vessel it floats without trim or heel. A vessel's stability is considered in both this hydrostatic sense as well as a hydrodynamic sense when subjected to movement rolling and pitching and the action of waves and wind. Stability problems can lead to excessive pitching and rolling and eventually capsizing and sinking. Hydrodynamics Fishing boat Dona Delfina The advance of a vessel through water is resisted by the water. This resistance can be broken down into several components the main ones being the friction of the water on the hull and wave making resistance. To reduce resistance and therefore increase the speed for a given power it is necessary to reduce the wetted surface and use submerged hull shapes that produce low amplitude waves. To do so high-speed vessels are often more slender with fewer or smaller appendages. The friction of the water is also reduced by regular maintenance of the hull to remove the sea creatures and algae that accumulate there. Antifouling paint is commonly used to assist in this. Advanced designs such as the bulbous bow assist in decreasing wave resistance. A simple way of considering wave-making resistance is to look at the hull in relation to its wake. At speeds lower than the wave propagation speed the wave rapidly dissipates to the sides. As the hull approaches the wave propagation speed however the wake at the bow begins to build up faster than it can dissipate and so it grows in amplitude. Since the water is not able to "get out of the way of the hull fast enough" the hull in essence has to climb over or push through the bow wave. This results in an exponential increase in resistance with increasing speed. This hull speed is found by the formula: or in metric units: where L is the length of the waterline in feet or meters. When the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 0.94 it starts to outrun most of its bow wave and the hull actually settles slightly in the water as it is now only supported by two wave peaks. As the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 1.34 the hull speed the wavelength is now longer than the hull and the stern is no longer supported by the wake causing the stern to squat and the bow rise. The hull is now starting to climb its own bow wave and resistance begins to increase at a very high rate. While it is possible to drive a displacement hull faster than a speed/length ratio of 1.34 it is prohibitively expensive to do so. Most large vessels operate at speed/length ratios well below that level at speed/length ratios of under 1.0. Vessels move along the three axes: 1. heave 2. sway 3. surge 4. yaw 5. pitch 6. roll For large projects with adequate funding hydrodynamic resistance can be tested experimentally in a hull testing pool or using tools of computational fluid dynamics. Vessels are also subject to ocean surface waves and sea swell as well as effects of wind and weather. These movements can be stressful for passengers and equipment and must be controlled if possible. The rolling movement can be controlled to an extent by ballasting or by devices such as fin stabilizers. Pitching movement is more difficult to limit and can be dangerous if the bow submerges in the waves a phenomenon called pounding. Sometimes ships must change course or speed to stop violent rolling or pitching. Lifecycle A ship will pass through several stages during its career. The first is usually an initial contract to build the ship the details of which can vary widely based on relationships between the shipowners operators designers and the shipyard. Then the design phase carried out by a naval architect. Then the ship is constructed in a shipyard. After construction the vessel is launched and goes into service. Ships end their careers in a number of ways ranging from shipwrecks to service as a museum ship to the scrapyard. Lines plan for the hull of a basic cargo ship Design See also: Naval architecture A vessel's design starts with a specification which a naval architect uses to create a project outline assess required dimensions and create a basic layout of spaces and a rough displacement. After this initial rough draft the architect can create an initial hull design a general profile and an initial overview of the ship's propulsion. At this stage the designer can iterate on the ship's design adding detail and refining the design at each stage. The designer will typically produce an overall plan a general specification describing the peculiarities of the vessel and construction blueprints to be used at the building site. Designs for larger or more complex vessels may also include sail plans electrical schematics and plumbing and ventilation plans. As environmental laws are strictening ship designers need to create their design in such a way that the ship -when it nears its end-of-term- can be disassmbled or disposed easily and that waste is reduced to a minimum. MS Freedom of the Seas under construction in a shipyard in Turku. Construction Main article: Shipbuilding Ship construction takes place in a shipyard and can last from a few months for a unit produced in series to several years to reconstruct a wooden boat like the frigate Hermione to more than 10 years for an aircraft carrier. Hull materials and vessel size play a large part in determining the method of construction. The hull of a mass-produced fiberglass sailboat is constructed from a mold while the steel hull of a cargo ship is made from large sections welded together as they are built. A ship launching at the Northern Shipyard in Gdansk Poland A shipyard at Kerala Southern India Generally construction starts with the hull and on vessels over about 30 meters (98 ft) by the laying of the keel. This is done in a drydock or on land. Once the hull is assembled and painted it is launched. The last stages such as raising the superstructure and adding equipment and accommodation can be done after the vessel is afloat. Once completed the vessel is delivered to the customer. Ship launching is often a ceremony of some significance and is usually when the vessel is formally named. A typical small rowboat can cost under US$100 $1000 for a small speedboat tens of thousands of dollars for a cruising sailboat and about $2000000 for a Vende Globe class sailboat. A 25 meters (82 ft) trawler may cost $2.5 million and a 1000-person-capacity high-speed passenger ferry can cost in the neighborhood of $50 million. A ship's cost partly depends on its complexity: a small general cargo ship will cost $20 million a Panamax-sized bulk carrier around $35 million a supertanker around $105 million and a large LNG carrier nearly $200 million. The most expensive ships generally are so because of the cost of embedded electronics: a Seawolf-class submarine costs around $2 billion and an aircraft carrier goes for about $3.5 billion. Repair and conversion An able seaman uses a needlegun scaler while refurbishing a mooring winch at sea Ships undergo nearly constant maintenance during their career whether they be underway pierside or in some cases in periods of reduced operating status between charters or shipping seasons. Most ships however require trips to special facilities such as a drydock at regular intervals. Tasks often done at drydock include removing biological growths on the hull sandblasting and repainting the hull and replacing sacrificial anodes used to protect submerged equipment from corrosion. Major repairs to the propulsion and steering systems as well as major electrical systems are also often performed at dry dock. Vessels that sustain major damage at sea may be repaired at a facility equipped for major repairs such as a shipyard. Ships may also be converted for a new purpose: oil tankers are often converted into floating production storage and offloading units. A ship graveyard in France End of service Main article: Ship disposal Most ocean-going cargo ships have a life expectancy of between 20 and 30 years. A sailboat made of plywood or fiberglass can last between 30 and 40 years. Solid wooden ships can last much longer but require regular maintenance. Carefully maintained steel-hulled yachts can have a lifespan of over 100 years. As ships age forces such as corrosion osmosis and rotting compromise hull strength and a vessel becomes too dangerous to sail. At this point it can be scuttled at sea or scrapped by shipbreakers. Ships can also be used as museum ships or expended to construct breakwaters or artificial reefs. Many ships do not make it to the scrapyard and are lost in fires collisions grounding or sinking at sea. There are more than 3 million shipwrecks on the ocean floor the United Nations estimates.60 The Allies lost some 5150 ships during World War II.61 Measuring ships One can measure ships in terms of overall length length of the ship at the waterline beam (breadth) depth (distance between the crown of the weather deck and the top of the keelson) draft (distance between the highest waterline and the bottom of the ship) and tonnage. A number of different tonnage definitions exist and are used when describing merchant ships for the purpose of tolls taxation etc. In Britain until Samuel Plimsoll's Merchant Shipping Act of 1876 ship-owners could load their vessels until their decks were almost awash resulting in a dangerously unstable condition. Anyone who signed on to such a ship for a voyage and upon realizing the danger chose to leave the ship could end up in jail. Plimsoll a Member of Parliament realised the problem and engaged some engineers to derive a fairly simple formula to determine the position of a line on the side of any specific ship's hull which when it reached the surface of the water during loading of cargo meant the ship had reached its maximum safe loading level. To this day that mark called the "Plimsoll Line" exists on ships' sides and consists of a circle with a horizontal line through the centre. On the Great Lakes of North America the circle is replaced with a diamond. Because different types of water (summer fresh tropical fresh winter north Atlantic) have different densities subsequent regulations required painting a group of lines forward of the Plimsoll mark to indicate the safe depth (or freeboard above the surface) to which a specific ship could load in water of various densities. Hence the "ladder" of lines seen forward of the Plimsoll mark to this day. This is called the "freeboard mark" or "load line mark" in the marine industry. Ship pollution Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by shipping. It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized posing an increasing threat to the worlds oceans and waterways as globalization continues. It is expected that ...shipping traffic to and from the USA is projected to double by 2020."62 Because of increased traffic in ocean ports pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects biodiversity climate food and human health. However the degree to which humans are polluting and how it affects the world is highly debated and has been a hot international topic for the past 30 years. Oil spills Main article: Oil spill The Exxon Valdez spilled 10800000 US gallons (8993000 imp gal; 40880000 L) of oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound.63 Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.64 Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems susceptibility to disease and abnormal reproductive cycles. By the sheer amount of oil carried modern oil tankers must be considered something of a threat to the environment. An oil tanker can carry 2 million barrels (318000 m3) of crude oil or 84000000 US gallons (69940000 imp gal; 318000000 L). This is more than six times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill the ship ran aground and dumped 10800000 US gallons (8993000 imp gal; 40880000 L) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists managers and volunteers over 400000 seabirds about 1000 sea otters and immense numbers of fish were killed.64 The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has researched 9351 accidental spills since 1974.65 According to this study most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo discharging cargo and taking on fuel oil.65 91% of the operational oil spills were small resulting in less than 7 tons per spill.65 Spills resulting from accidents like collisions groundings hull failures and explosions are much larger with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 tons.65 Following the Exxon Valdez spill the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA-90) which included a stipulation that all tankers entering its waters be double-hulled by 2015. Following the sinkings of the Erika (1999) and Prestige (2002) the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I II and III) which require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".66 Ballast water Main article: Ballast water discharge and the environment A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side When a large vessel such as a container ship or an oil tanker unloads cargo seawater is pumped into other compartments in the hull to help stabilize and balance the ship. During loading this ballast water is pumped out from these compartments. One of the problems with ballast water transfer is the transport of harmful organisms. Meinesz67 believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi a species of comb jellyfish that inhabits estuaries from the United States to the Valds peninsula in Argentina along the Atlantic coast has caused notable damage in the Black Sea. It was first introduced in 1982 and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ships ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and by 1988 it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. "The anchovy catch fell from 204000 tonnes (225000 ST; 201000 LT) in 1984 to 200 tonnes (220 ST; 197 LT) in 1993; sprat from 24600 tonnes (27100 ST; 24200 LT) in 1984 to 12000 tonnes (13200 ST; 11800 LT) in 1993; horse mackerel from 4000 tonnes (4410 ST; 3940 LT) in 1984 to zero in 1993."67 Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton including fish larvae their numbers have fallen dramatically yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem. Recently the jellyfish have been discovered in the Caspian Sea. Invasive species can take over once occupied areas facilitate the spread of new diseases introduce new genetic material alter landscapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. "On land and in the sea invasive species are responsible for about 137 billion dollars in lost revenue and management costs in the U.S. each year."64 Ballast and bilge discharge from ships can also spread human pathogens and other harmful diseases and toxins potentially causing health issues for humans and marine life alike.68 Discharges into coastal waters along with other sources of marine pollution have the potential to be toxic to marine plants animals and microorganisms causing alterations such as changes in growth disruption of hormone cycles birth defects suppression of the immune system and disorders resulting in cancer tumors and genetic abnormalities or even death.64 Exhaust emissions Exhaust stack on a container ship. Exhaust emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution. Seagoing vessels are responsible for an estimated 14 percent of emissions of nitrogen from fossil fuels and 16 percent of the emissions of sulfur from petroleum uses into the atmosphere.64 In Europe ships make up a large percentage of the sulfur introduced to the air ...as much sulfur as all the cars lorries and factories in Europe put together.69 By 2010 up to 40% of air pollution over land could come from ships.69 Sulfur in the air creates acid rain which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled sulfur is known to cause respiratory problems and increase the risk of a heart attack.69 Ship breaking Main article: ship breaking Ship breaking or ship demolition is a type of ship disposal involving the breaking up of ships for scrap recycling with the hulls being discarded in ship graveyards. Most ships have a lifespan of a few decades before there is so much wear that refitting and repair becomes uneconomical. Ship breaking allows materials from the ship especially steel to be reused. Ship breaking near Chittagong Bangladesh In addition to steel and other useful materials however ships (particularly older vessels) can contain many substances that are banned or considered dangerous in developed countries. Asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are typical examples. Asbestos was used heavily in ship construction until it was finally banned in most of the developed world in the mid 1980s. Currently the costs associated with removing asbestos along with the potentially expensive insurance and health risks have meant that ship-breaking in most developed countries is no longer economically viable. Removing the metal for scrap can potentially cost more than the scrap value of the metal itself. In the developing world however shipyards can operate without the risk of personal injury lawsuits or workers' health claims meaning many of these shipyards may operate with high health risks. Protective equipment is sometimes absent or inadequate. Dangerous vapors and fumes from burning materials can be inhaled and dusty asbestos-laden areas around such breakdown locations are commonplace. Aside from the health of the yard workers in recent years ship breaking has also become an issue of major environmental concern. Many developing nations in which ship breaking yards are located have lax or no environmental law enabling large quantities of highly toxic materials to escape into the environment and causing serious health problems among ship breakers the local population and wildlife. Environmental campaign groups such as Greenpeace have made the issue a high priority for their campaigns.70 Buoyancy See also: Buoyancy A floating boat displaces its weight in water. The material of the boat hull may be denser than water but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer. If the boat floats the mass of the boat (plus contents) as a whole divided by the volume below the waterline is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). If weight is added to the boat the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal and so the boat sinks a little to compensate. See also Nautical portal Find more about Ships on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Airship Chartering (shipping) Dynamic positioning Factory ship Flag State Environmental issues with shipping Ferry Glossary of nautical terms Marine electronics Marine fuel management Maritime history Maritime law Naval architecture Navy Propulsion system Sailing Sailing ship Sailor Ship burial Ship transport Shipwreck Spaceship Train ferry Whaler Model ships Ship model Ship model basin Ship replica Lists List of civilian nuclear ships List of fictional ships List of historical ship types List of ships List of shipwrecks List of the world's largest cruise ships List of world's largest ships by gross tonnage List of world's longest ships Notes a b c d UNCTAD 2007 p. x and p. 32. "The Columbian Exchange". The University of North Carolina. Cutler 1999 p. 620. Cutler 1999 p. 611. Chief of Naval Operations (March 2001). "The Saga of the Submarine: Early Years to the Beginning of Nuclear Power". United States Navy. http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/subsaga5.html. Retrieved 2008-10-03.  E.g. The Chicago Manual of Style 15th edition p. 356. 2003. ISBN 0-226-10403-6. See also George Rose (29 November 2010). "All at Sea". Slate Magazine. http://www.slate.com/id/2274626/entry/2274627/. Retrieved 4 December 2010.  a b c Ward Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats" in Archaeology (Volume 54 Number 3 May/June 2001). Archaeological Institute of America. Archaeology.org The earliest known Egyptian boats date to 3000 B.C. and were found in Abydos in 1991. They consisted of planks joined by ropes passing through mortises. Similar boats dating to 2600 B.C. were found in 1954 and 1987 in pits at the Great Pyramid of Khufu in Giza. In 1894 Egyptian boats composed of planks joined by mortises and tenons were found in Dashur. See: ABC.se Agatharchides in Wilfred Harvey Schoff (Secretary of the Commercial Museum of Philadelphia) with a foreword by W. P. Wilson Sc. Director The Philadelphia Museums. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century Translated from the Greek and Annotated (1912). New York New York: Longmans Green and Co. pages 50 (for attribution) and 57 (for quote). Anzovin item # 5393 page 385 Reference to a ship with a name appears in an inscription of 2613 BCE that recounts the shipbuilding achievements of the fourth-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu. He was recorded as the builder of a cedarwood vessel called "Praise of the Two Lands." "Minoan civilization". Encyclopdia Britannica. Aksum An African Civilization of Late Antiquity by Stuart Munro-Hay "Aksum by MSN Encarta". Aksum by MSN Encarta. Encarta.msn.com. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia761564182/aksum.html. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  Cultures and Customs of Somalia. Books.google.com. 2001. ISBN 9780313313332. http://books.google.com/id2Nu918tYMB8C&pgPA13&lpgPA13&dqmedieval+Somali+sailors. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  Chisholm 1911:703. Greatest emporium in the world CSI UNESCO. "The Origins of Globalization" Ivey Business Journal. Hall Martin; Silliman Stephen W. (2006). Historical Archaeology. Books.google.com. ISBN 9781405107518. http://books.google.com/idcmaTt05CJ3wC&pgPA242&lpgPA242&dqGreat+Zimbabwe+trade+port. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  Texancultures.utsa.edu Joan Baxter (13 December 2000). "Africa's 'greatest explorer'". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm. Retrieved 2008-02-12.  Li Shu-hua Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole Isis Vol. 45 No. 2. (Jul. 1954) p.181 Frederic C. Lane The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass The American Historical Review Vol. 68 No. 3. (Apr. 1963) p.615ff. Chisholm 1911:284. Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver East Africa and its Invaders pg.38 "Eastern and Southern Africa 500-1000 AD". Metmuseum.org. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/sfe/ht06sfe.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  "Tanzanian dig unearths ancient secret by Tira Shubart". BBC News. 2002-04-17. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1924318.stm. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  A History of Mozambique. Books.google.com. 1995. ISBN 9780253340061. http://books.google.com/idvLzpzs1t6cC&pgPA245&lpgPA245&dqSwahili+trade+ports. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  "Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354". Fordham.edu. 2001-02-21. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  "West African Kingdoms". Kurahulanda.com. http://www.kurahulanda.com/west-african-kingdoms/west-african. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  "The Story of Africa". Bbc.co.uk. http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624storyofafrica/page82.shtml. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  Africa's Part in the Discovery of America by the New York Times "Africa's 'greatest explorer' by BBC". BBC News. 2000-12-13. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1068950.stm. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  "The European Golden Age of Shipping". Discovery Channel. Love Ronald S. "Maritime exploration in the age of discovery 1415-1800" Greenwood guides to historic events 1500-1900 Greenwood Publishing Group 2006 ISBN 0313320438 "The Middle Colonies: New York". Digital History. Auguste Mayer's picture as described by the official website of the Muse national de la Marine (in French) UNCTAD 2007 p. 32. a b c d UNFAO 2007 p. 25. UNFAO 2005 p.6. UNFAO 2005 p.9. Paulet Dominique; Presles Dominique (1999) (in Franais). Architecture navale connaissance et pratique. Paris: ditions de la Villette. ISBN 2-903539-46-4.  UNCTAD 2007 p. xii uses a similar but slightly more detailed classification system. With the addition of corvettes this is the categorization used at United States Navy. "U.S. Navy Ships". United States Navy. http://www.navy.mil/navydata/ourships.asp. Retrieved 2008-04-20.  Hospital Ship (definition via WordNet Princeton University) Cutter 1999 p. 224. UNFAO defines a large fishing vessel as one with gross tonnage over 100 GT. UNFAO 2007 p. 28. a b c UNFAO 2007 p. 11. a b c Malcolm Francis Willoughby. The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II. pp. 127130. http://books.google.com/booksidT5A9LCujs08C&pgPA129&lpgPA129&dqweather+ship+book&sourcebl&otsG7-lIok3VQ&sigkzpixxcNE3S7GxswCW8-YOwooIM&hlen&eiybk1TaXBDcfTgQfUleyqCw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBUQ6AEwADgU#vonepage&qweather%20ship%20book&ffalse. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  a b "Britain's First Weather Ship". Popular Mechanics: 136. June 1948. http://books.google.com/booksidQtkDAAAAMBAJ&pgPA136&lpgPA136&dqweather+ship+book&sourcebl&otsOmpRmlkBT&sigG7QIzrcG4dh7nOf-S7BHtVuI7EI&hlen&eidbU1TfnWLIeSgQe7qeiXCw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum9&sqi2&ved0CEwQ6AEwCA#vonepage&qweather%20ship%20book&ffalse. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  George Lee Dowd Jr. (August 1927). "The First Plane to Germany". Popular Science (Popular Science Publishing Company Inc.) 111 (2): 121. http://books.google.com/booksidICoDAAAAMBAJ&pgPA121&dqweather+ship+network+book&hlen&eiTA82TaODHYO0lQfDrn5Cw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum9&ved0CFEQ6AEwCDgU#vonepage&qweather%20ship%20network%20book&ffalse. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  Hans Ulrich Roll (1965). Physics of the marine atmosphere. Academic Press. pp. 1415. ISBN 9780125936507. http://books.google.com/booksidNEuXtdcroDMC&pgPA14&dqweather+ship+network+book&hlen&eiFo1TZqVM8P7lwfvtNDCCg&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum10&sqi2&ved0CFoQ6AEwCQ#vonepage&qweather%20ship%20network%20book&ffalse. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  Stanislaw R. Massel (1996). Ocean surface waves: their physics and prediction. World Scientific. pp. 369371. ISBN 9789810221096. http://books.google.com/booksid8sHp9ml7G6YC&pgPA371&lpgPA371&dqweather+ship+book&sourcebl&otsH7OPU6yWbr&sigp3qEkpMqecWnmK78eSM4Z78B2kU&hlen&eiY7c1TfmB8P3gAfT8oGDCw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum2&ved0CBkQ6AEwATgK#vonepage&qweather%20ship%20book&ffalse. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  Carl. O. Erickson (March 1967). "Some Aspects of the Development of Hurricane Dorothy". Monthly Weather Review 95 (3): 121130. http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/095/mwr-095-03-0121.pdf. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  "Romeo Would Have Spied the Storm". New Scientist (IPC Magazines) 116 (1583): 22. 1987-10-22. http://books.google.com/booksidnCLWnFozM6EC&pgPA25&dqweather+ship+network+book&hlen&eidQE2TeWwMIaKlwenytCaCg&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum3&ved0CDgQ6AEwAjgK#vonepage&qweather%20ship%20network%20book&ffalse. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction (1974). The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board Commission on Natural Resources National Research Council. National Academies. p. 40. http://books.google.com/booksid2zQrAAAAYAAJ&pgPA40&dqweather+ship+network+book&hlen&eiTA82TaODHYO0lQfDrn5Cw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CCwQ6AEwADgU#vonepage&qweather%20ship%20network%20book&ffalse. Retrieved 2011-01-18.  Office of Data and Economic Analysis 2006 p. 2. Almost all paddle steamers had a single engine with their paddles permanently coupled without any clutches and so could not be used for steering. Only a few examples with separate engines were steerable. The Royal Navy however operated diesel-electric harbour tugs with paddles into the 1970s for their superior maneuverability. Arango Tim (2007-09-11). "Curse of the $500 million sunken treasure". Money.cnn.tv. http://money.cnn.tv/2007/09/10/news/companies/odysseytreasurefortune.fortune/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-19.  Sea Lanes in Wartime - The American Experience 1775-1945 2nd edition by Albion Robert Greenhalgh and Pope Jennie Barnes Archon Books 1968. Watson T. (2004 August 30). Ship pollution clouds USA's skies. USA Today. Retrieved November 1 2006 from USAtoday.com "Frequently asked questions about the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill". State of Alaska. http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/History/FAQ.htm.  a b c d e Panetta L. E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change Electronic Version CD Pew Oceans Commission. a b c d "International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Statistics". Itopf.com. 2005-06-09. http://www.itopf.com/information-services/data-and-statistics/statistics/. Retrieved 2009-04-21.  European Parliament. Directive 2005/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on ship-source pollution and on the introduction of penalties for infringements. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.douriOJ:L:2005:255:0011:01:EN:HTML. Retrieved 2008-02-22.  a b Meinesz A. (2003). Deep Sea Invasion. The Impact of Invasive Species. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26 2006 from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/impact.html National Research Council Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health Ocean Studies Board Commission on Geosciences Environment and Resources. (1999). From monsoons to microbes: understanding the ocean's role in human health. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press a b c Harrabin R. (2003 June 25). EU faces ship clean-up call. BBC News. Retrieved November 1 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3019686.stm "Shipbreaking". Greenpeace. March 16 2006. http://www.greenpeaceweb.org/shipbreak/. Retrieved 2007-08-27.  References Anzovin Steven (2000). Famous First Facts (International Edition). H. W. Wilson Company. ISBN 0824209583.  Bowditch Nathaniel (2002). The American Practical Navigator. Bethesda MD: National Imagery and Mapping Agency. ISBN 0939837544. http://www.irbs.com/bowditch/.  Central Intelligence Agency (2007). CIA World Factbook 2008. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 1602390800. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html. Retrieved 2008-02-22.  Chatterton Edward Keble (1915). Sailing Ships and Their Story: The Story of Their Development from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. http://books.google.com/idC-cVAAAAMAAJ&printsectitlepage. Retrieved 2008-10-02.  Cotterill Charles Clement; Little Edward Delanoy (1868). Ships and sailors ancient and modern. London: Seeley Jackson and Halliday. http://books.google.com/idj1wBAAAAQAAJ&printsecfrontcover.  Cutler Thomas J. (1999). The Bluejacket's Manual (Bluejacket's Manual 22nd ed). Annapolis Md: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-065-7.  Cutler Thomas J. (December 2003). Dutton's Nautical Navigation (15th ed.). Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1557502483.  Det Norske Veritas (2008). "Knock Nevis". DNV Exchange. Det Norske Veritas. https://exchange.dnv.com/exchange/main.aspxextoolvessel&subviewsummary&vesselid16864.  Encyclopdia Britannica (1911). "Navigation". In Chisholm Hugh. Encyclopdia Britannica. 19 (11th edition ed.). http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/User:TimStarling/ScanSetTIFFdemo.  Encyclopdia Britannica (1911). "Ship". In Chisholm Hugh. Encyclopdia Britannica. 24 (11th edition ed.). pp. 881889. http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.phptitleUser:TimStarling/ScanSetTIFFdemo&vol24&pageED4A915.  Fisheries and Aquacultures Department (2007). "The Status of the Fishing Fleet". The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0699e/A0699E04.htm#4.1.5.  George William (2005). Stability and Trim for the Ship's Officer. Centreville MD: Cornell Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-87033-564-8.  Hayler William B.; Keever John M. (2003). American Merchant Seaman's Manual. Cornell Maritime Pr. ISBN 0-87033-549-9.  Huber Mark (2001). Tanker operations: a handbook for the person-in-charge (PIC). Cambridge MD: Cornell Maritime Press. ISBN 0-87033-528-6.  Lavery Brian (2004). Ship: The Epic Story of Maritime Adventure (Smithsonian). New York: DK Publishing Inc. ISBN 0756604966.  Maloney Elbert S. (December 2003). Chapman Piloting and Seamanship (64th ed.). New York NY: Hearst Communications Inc.. ISBN 1-58816-098-0.  Office of Data and Economic Analysis (July 2006). "World Merchant Fleet 20012005" (PDF). United States Maritime Administration. http://www.marad.dot.gov/MARADstatistics/2005%20STATISTICS/World%20Merchant%20Fleet%202005.pdf. Retrieved March 13 2007.  Overseas Shipholding Group (2008-02-22). "Overseas Shipholding Group Fleet List". Overseas Shipholding Group. http://www.osg.com/uploadedFiles/2222008FleetlistDownload.xls.  Sawyer L. A.; Mitchell W. O. (1987). Sailing ship to supertanker: the hundred-year story of British Esso and its ships. Lavenham Suffolk: Terence Dalton. ISBN 0-86138-055-X.  Singh Baljit (July 11 1999). "The worlds biggest ship". The Times (of India). http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99jul11/sunday/head3.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-07.  Turpin Edward A.; McEwen William A. (1980). Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook (4th ed.). Centreville MD: Cornell Maritime Press. ISBN 0-87038-056-X.  United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2006) (PDF). Review of Maritime Transport 2006. New York and Geneva: United Nations. http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2006en.pdf.  United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2007) (PDF). Review of Maritime Transport 2007. New York and Geneva: United Nations. http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2007en.pdf.  Stopford Martin (1997). Maritime economics. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15309-3. http://books.google.com/idR-YB70kly8C&printsecfrontcover.  v d eAbout fishing vessels Commercial Commercial fishing boats  Trawlers  Seiners  Drifters  Longliners  Factory ships  Fishery Protection Squadron  Fishing fleet  Research vessels  Whalers  Whaling ships  British ships  Japanese ships Traditional Traditional fishing boats  Bawley  Bokkura  Caque  Cape Islander  Chasse-mare  Coble  Coracle  Couta  Currach  Dogger  Dhoni  Dugout  Falkua  Felucca  Fifie  Friendship sloop  Galway hooker  Herring buss  Jangada  Jukung  Kolae  Lugger  Luzzu  Mackinaw  Monterey clipper  Nobby  Pirogue  Reed boat  Sampan  Sgoth  Shad boat  Sixareen  Smack  Well smack  Yawl  Yoal Dories Banks  Cape Ann  Gloucester  McKenzie River  Swampscott Oyster boats Bugeye  Deadrise  Log canoe  Pungy  Schooners  Sharpie  Skipjack Recreational Bass boat  Farley v d eFisheries and fishing topic areas Fisheries Fisheries science  Wild fisheries  Fish farming  Aquaculture  Fish diversity  Fish diseases  Fisheries management  Fishing quota  Sustainability Fishing Fisherman  Artisan fishing  Fishing villages  Fishing vessels  Fishing history Industrial Commercial fishing  Processing  Products  Seafood  Marketing  Markets Recreational Angling  Game fishing  Fly fishing  Catch and release Techniques Gathering  Spearfishing  Line fishing  Netting  Trawling  Trapping  Other Tackle Hook  Line  Sinker  Rod  Bait  Lures  Artificial flies  Bite alarms Locations Fishing by country  Fishing villages  Fishing banks  Fish ponds  Oceanic habitats Index of fishing articles  List of fishing topics by subject  Fisheries glossary v d eModern merchant vessels Dry cargo Barge  Bulk carrier/Lake freighter  Car float  Coaster  Collier  Container ship  Heavy lift ship   Hopper barge   Lighter aboard ship  Reefer ship  RORO ship  Submarine Cargo Vessel  Train ferry  Livestock carrier Tankers Chemical tanker  FPSO unit   LNG carrier   Oil tanker  Tanker Passenger Cargo liner  Cruiseferry   Cruise ship   Ferry  Narrowboat  Ocean liner  RORO ship  Train ferry Support Dive support  Fireboat  Supply ship  Tender   Towboat  Tugboat Other Pipe-laying ship   Cable layer  Crane vessel  Dredger   Drillship   Fishing vessel  Icebreaker  Merchant submarine  Research vessel  Riverboat   Semi-submersible  Snagboat v d eTypes of sailing vessels and rigs Barca-longa  Barque  Barquentine  Bermuda rig  Bermuda sloop  Bilander  Brig  Brigantine  Caravel  Carrack  Catamaran  Catboat  Clipper  Dutch clipper  Cog  Corvette  Cutter  Dhow  Dinghy  East Indiaman  Falkua  Felucca  Fifie  Fluyt  Fore-and-aft rig  Frigate  Full rigged ship  Fusta  Gaff rig  Galeas  Galleon  Gunter rig  Hermaphrodite brig  Herring buss  Hoy  Jackass-barque  Jangada  Junk  Ketch  Koch  Longship  Lugger  Man-of-war  Mast aft rig  Mersey Flat  Multihull  Nao  Nordland  Norfolk punt  Norfolk wherry  Pausik  Pilot cutter  Pink  Pinnace  Pocket cruiser  Polacca  Pram  Proa  Punt  Razee  Sailing barge  Sailing hydrofoil  Scow  Schooner  Ship of the line  Sixareen  Sgoth  Shitik  Sloop  Sloop-of-war  Smack  Snow  Square rig  Tall ship  Thames sailing barge  Trailer sailer  Treasure ship  Trimaran  Uru  Vinta  Well smack  Wherry  Windjammer  Windsurfer  Xebec  Yacht  Yawl  Yoal v d eWarship types of the 19th and 20th centuries Aircraft carrier  Battleship  Battlecruiser  Cruiser  Destroyer  Frigate  Corvette  Ironclad  Monitor  Submarine  Torpedo boat  Missile boat  Gunboat