This article is about cultural prohibitions in general. For the Polynesian religious concept see Tapu (Polynesian culture). For other uses see Taboo (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009) Sociology Portal Theory and History

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A taboo is a strong social prohibition (or ban) relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and forbidden based on moral judgment and religious beliefs. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society. The term comes from the Tongan word tabu meaning set apart or forbidden and appears in many Polynesian cultures. In those cultures a tabu (or tapu or kapu) often has specific religious associations. American author Herman Melville in his first novel "Typee" describes both the origin and use of the word in Polynesian culture. "The word itself (taboo) is used in more than one signification. It is sometimes used by a parent to his child when in the exercise of parental authority he forbids it to perform a particular action. Anything opposed to the ordinary customs of the islands although not expressly prohibited is said to be "taboo"." When an activity or custom is taboo it is forbidden and interdictions are implemented concerning it such as the ground set apart as a sanctuary for criminals. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment shame and rudeness. Although critics and/or dissenters may oppose taboos they are put into place to avoid disrespect to any given authority be it legal moral and/or religious. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Examples 3 See also 4 Literature 5 References 6 External links Etymology "Taboo":Common etymology traces taboo to the Tongan word tapu12 or the Fijian word tabu meaning "under prohibition" "not allowed" or "forbidden".3 In its current use in Tonga the word tapu also means "sacred" or "holy" often in the sense of being restricted or protected by custom or law. In the main island of the Kingdom of Tonga where the greater portion of the population reside within the capital Nuku'alofa the word is often appended to the end of "Tonga" making the word "Tongatapu" as "Sacred South" rather than "forbidden south". The use of taboo in English dates back to 1777 when English explorer Captain James Cook visited Tonga. Describing the cultural practices of the Tongans he wrote: Not one of them would sit down or eat a bit of any thing.... On expressing my surprise at this they were all taboo as they said; which word has a very comprehensive meaning; but in general signifies that a thing is forbidden.4 and: When any thing is forbidden to be eaten or made use of they say that it is taboo.5 Examples On an universal scale in almost all cultures Taboos can include sex death dietary restrictions (halal and kosher diets religious vegetarianism and the prohibition of cannibalism) restrictions on sexual activities and relationships (sex outside of marriage adultery intermarriage miscegenation incest animal-human sex adult-child sex sex with the dead) sexual fetishes restrictions of bodily functions (burping flatulence defecation and urination) restrictions on the use of psychoactive drugs restrictions on state of genitalia such as (transsexual gender identity circumcision or sex reassignment) exposure of body parts (ankles in the Victorian British Empire women's hair in parts of the Middle East nudity in the US) and restrictions on the use of offensive language. Practices considered acceptable in one culture may be considered taboo in other cultures. For example Foot Binding practiced in ancient China would be considered taboo in the context of modern cultural morals. Exposure of intimate parts is generally taboo in (most) modern developed countries.citation needed Other subjects perceived to be taboo involve burning money; some countries or nations (most notably post-WWII Europe whose governments often object going to war except for reasons of self-defense) and moral-philosophical debates on whether or not humanity should (or not) exist.citation needed No taboo is known to be universal but some (such as cannibalism intentional homicide and incest taboos) occur in the majority of societies. Taboos may serve many functions and often remain in effect after the original reason behind them has expired. Some have argued that taboos therefore reveal the history of societies when other records are lacking.6 Certain taboos lose their sting over periods of time. In the United States and western countries most people are now more comfortable than before when they discuss and explore social issues: gossip and scandal alcoholism depression homosexuality divorce income disparity personal relationships pregnancy and childbirth and teenage rebellion. Medical disorders and diseases like cancer polio AIDS mental disorders and suicide aren't as heavily taboo now as in the past. Certain personal things such as age height weight and appearance are not always shared with confidants or in public; this indicates that such topics may be taboo to some people. Taboos often extend to cover discussion of taboo topics. This can result in taboo deformation (euphemism) or replacement of taboo words. Marvin Harris a leading figure in cultural materialism endeavored to explain taboos as a consequence of the ecologic and economic conditions of their societies. Taboos challenge one's free speech and individual rights to express a subject or issue in need to be addressed for the benefit not to damage any given society. Also Sigmund Freud provided an analysis of taboo behaviors highlighting strong unconscious motivations driving such prohibitions. In this system described in his collections of essays Totem and Taboo Freud postulates a link between forbidden behaviors and the sanctification of objects to certain kinship groups. Freud also states here that the only two "universal" taboos are that of incest and patricide which formed the eventual basis of modern society. Other societal taboos to a certain extent or to some people are the polarizing issues of racism sexism ethnicity nationality religion conspiracy theories politics money socio-economic class sexual orientation and disability. People follow this advice of not discussing joking about or making an issue of things that can lead to bigotry discrimination defamation and stigmatization of people with those social group differences. For such topics the moderated environment of an organized debate may be the only socially acceptable place to discuss them. They developed as a result of concerns for civil rights sensitivity and multiculturalism in the late 20th century.citation needed In today's world (esp. true in the USA) certain political ideologies like fascism (i.e. Nazism) and Communism including extreme forms of socialism and left-wing or right-wing extremes like anarchism (no rulers) and militarism (military dictators) would be perceived as taboo to a democratic society which finds these alternatives immoral and sinister.citation needed When presented in the shape of parody or comedy as performed by comedians taboo topics and subject matter can induce comical reaction by the general public without causing disgust or offense as to what was said or mentioned about an emotionally charged issue described as mainly taboo in a given society.citation needed See also Bias Censorship Deviance Etiquette Faux pas Halal and Kosher (Kashrut) Menstrual taboo Morality Mother-in-law languages Natural law Naming taboo in imperial China Norm (sociology) Political correctness Prejudice Prohibition Public morality Religious tolerance Sacrilege Sacred Scottish pork taboo Social stigma Taboo food and drink Taboo on the dead Toilet humour Literature Robert Arthur You Will Die: The Burden of Modern Taboos. Suburra Publishing 2008 References "Tapu" was translated for James Cook as "consecrated inviolable forbidden unclean or cursed" (Cook & King 1821); also said in some English sources as being from Tongan (Polynesian language of the island of Tonga) ta-bu "sacred" from ta "mark" + bu "especially." But this may be folk etymology. (See Online Etymology Dictionary: Taboo) "Online dictionary". Lexico Publishing Group LLC. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo. Retrieved 2007-06-05.  Dixon Robert M. W.. A Grammar of Boumaa Fijian. p. 368. http://books.google.com.fj/booksidY7v2Beyc5YgC&pgPA368&dqtabu+meaning+Fijian&sig7cHDyzXMABHh4KHB6iRhTgh1f5I.  Cook & King 1821 p. 348 Cook & King 1821 p. 462 Marta Dyczok; Oxana Gaman-Golutvina (2009). Media Democracy and Freedom: The Post-Communist Experience. Peter Lang. p. 209. ISBN 9783034303118. http://books.google.com/booksidmeUcrEBRpgMC.  Cook James; King James (1821). A voyage to the Pacific Ocean: undertaken by command of His Majesty for making discoveries in the Northern Hemisphere : performed under the direction of Captains Cook Clerke and Gore : in the years 1776 1777 1778 1779 and 1780 : being a copious comprehensive and satisfactory abridgement of the voyage. http://books.google.com/booksidF0M-AAAAYAAJ.  Printed for Champante and Whitrow ... and M. Watson; 1793. Cook James (1728-1779). The Three Voyages of Captain James Cook Round the World. 5. London: A&E Spottiswoode. http://books.google.com/idh6UFAAAAMAAJ.  External links Stigma discrimination and attitudes to HIV