This article is about the sense. For the social and aesthetic aspects of "taste" see Taste (sociology). For other uses see Taste (disambiguation). Taste bud

Taste (or the more formal term gustation; adjectival form: "gustatory") is one of the traditional five senses. It refers to the ability to detect the flavor of substances such as food certain minerals and poisons etc.

Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds1 or gustatory calyculi concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue.2

The sensation of taste can be categorized into five basic tastes: sweetness bitterness sourness saltiness and umami. The recognition and awareness of umami is a relatively recent development in Western cuisine.3 MSG produces a strong umami taste.4

As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things all basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies.5

The basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth other factors include smell1 detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose;6 texture7 detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors muscle nerves etc.;8 and temperature detected by thermoreceptors. Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 History 1.2 Recent discoveries 1.3 Taste-map myth 2 Basic tastes 2.1 Bitterness 2.2 Saltiness 2.3 Sourness 2.4 Sweetness 2.5 Umami 3 Measuring relative tastes 4 Functional structure 5 Further sensations 6 Other concepts 6.1 Supertasters 6.2 Aftertaste 6.3 Acquired taste 6.4 Innervation 6.5 Disorders of taste 7 See also 8 Notes 8.1 Footnotes 8.2 Citations 9 Further reading 10 External links Introduction

As one of the senses taste is an essential part of daily life. History

In The West Aristotle who postulated c. 350 BCE9 that the two most basic tastes were sweet and bitter10 was one of the first to develop a list of basic tastes.11

Ayurveda an ancient Indian healing science has its own tradition of basic tastes including: astringent bitter pungent salty sour and sweet.1213 Recent discoveries

The receptors for all known basic tastes have been identified. Sour and salty are detected with ion channels whereas the receptors for sweet bitter and umami are G protein-coupled receptors.14 There is some evidence for a sixth taste that senses fatty substances.15 Taste-map myth Main article: Taste-map myth Despite a common misconception that different sections of the tongue specialized in different tastes all taste sensations come from all regions of the tongue.16 Basic tastes For a long period it was commonly acceptedwho that there is a finite and small number of "basic tastes" of which all seemingly complex tastes are ultimately composed. Just as with primary colors the "basic" quality of those sensations derives chiefly from the nature of human perception in this case the different sorts of tastes the human tongue can identify. Until the 2000s the number of "basic" tastes was considered to be four (bitterness saltiness sourness and sweetness). More recently a fifth taste "savory" or "umami" has been proposed by a large number of authorities associated with this field.17 In Asian countries within the sphere of mainly Chinese Indian and Japanese cultural influence Piquance has traditionally been considered a sixth basic taste.citation needed Bitterness Bitterness is the most sensitive of the tastes and is perceived by many to be unpleasant sharp or disagreeable. Common bitter foods and beverages include coffee unsweetened cocoa South American mate marmalade bitter melon beer bitters olives citrus peel many plants in the Brassicaceae family dandelion greens wild chicory escarole and lemons. Quinine is also known for its bitter taste and is found in tonic water. The threshold for stimulation of bitter taste by quinine averages 0.000008 M.18 The taste thresholds of other bitter substances are rated relative to quinine which is given an index of 1.1819 For example Brucine has an index of 11 is thus perceived as intensely more bitter than quinine and is detected at a much lower solution threshold.18 The most bitter substance known is the synthetic chemical denatonium which has an index of 1000.19 It is used as an aversive agent that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion. This was discovered in 1958 during research on lignocaine a local anesthetic by Macfarlan Smith of Edinburgh Scotland. Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors type 2 also known as T2Rs) such as TAS2R38 coupled to the G protein gustducin are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances.20 They are identified not only by their ability to taste for certain "bitter" ligands but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound monomeric).21 Researchers use two synthetic substances phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) to study the genetics of bitter perception. These two substances taste bitter to some people but are virtually tasteless to others. Among the tasters some are so-called "supertasters" to whom PTC and PROP are extremely bitter. The variation in sensitivity is determined by two common alleles at the TAS2R38 locus.22 This genetic variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics. In addition it is of interest to those who study evolution as well as various health researchers1823 since PTC-tasting is associated with the ability to taste numerous natural bitter compounds a large number of which are known to be toxic. The ability to detect bitter-tasting toxic compounds at low thresholds is considered to provide an important protective function.241823 Plant leaves often contain toxic compounds yet even amongst leaf-eating primates there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves which tend to be higher in protein and lower in fiber and poisons than mature leaves.25 Amongst humans various food processing techniques are used worldwide to detoxify otherwise inedible foods and make them palatable.26 Recently it is speculated that the selective constraints on the TAS2R family have been weakened due to the relatively high rate of mutation and pseudogenization. 27 Saltiness Saltiness is a taste produced primarily by the presence of sodium ions. Other ions of the alkali metals group also taste salty but the further from sodium the less salty the sensation is. The size of lithium and potassium ions most closely resemble those of sodium and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast rubidium and cesium ions are far larger so their salty taste differs accordingly.citation needed The saltiness of substances is rated relative to sodium chloride (NaCl) which has an index of 1.1819 Potassium as potassium chloride - KCl is the principal ingredient in salt substitutes and has a saltiness index of 0.6.1819 Other monovalent cations e.g. ammonium NH4+ and divalent cations of the alkali earth metal group of the periodic table e.g. calcium Ca2+ ions generally elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they too can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue generating an action potential. Sourness "Sour" redirects here. For other uses see Sour (disambiguation). Look up sour in Wiktionary the free dictionary. Sourness is the taste that detects acidity. The sourness of substances is rated relative to dilute hydrochloric acid which has a sourness index of 1. By comparison tartaric acid has a sourness index of 0.7 citric acid an index of 0.46 and carbonic acid an index of 0.06.1819 The mechanism for detecting sour taste is similar to that which detects salt taste. Hydrogen ion channels detect the concentration of hydronium ions that are formed from acids and water. Additionally the taste receptor PKD2L1 has been found to be involved in tasting sourness.28 Hydrogen ions are capable of permeating the amiloride-sensitive channels but this is not the only mechanism involved in detecting the quality of sourness. Other channels have also been proposed in the literature. Hydrogen ions also inhibit the potassium channel which normally functions to hyperpolarize the cell. By a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel sourness causes the taste cell to fire in this specific manner. In addition it has also been suggested that weak acids such as CO2 which is converted into the bicarbonate ion by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase to mediate weak acid transport.clarification needed The most common food group that contains naturally sour foods is fruit with examples such as lemon grape orange and sometimes melon. Wine also usually has a sour tinge to its flavor. If not kept correctly milk can spoil and contain a sour taste. Sour candy is especially popular in North America29 including Cry Babies Warheads Lemon drops Shock tarts and Sour Skittles and Starburst. Many of these candies contain citric acid. Sweetness Main article: Sweetness See also: Miraculin and Curculin Sweetness usually regarded as a pleasurable sensation is produced by the presence of sugars some proteins and a few other substances. Sweetness is often connected to aldehydes and ketones which contain a carbonyl group. Sweetness is detected by a variety of G protein coupled receptors coupled to the G protein gustducin found on the taste buds. At least two different variants of the "sweetness receptors" need to be activated for the brain to register sweetness. The compounds which the brain senses as sweet are thus compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to two different sweetness receptors. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer) which are shown to be accountable for all sweet sensing in humans and animals.30 Taste detection thresholds for sweet substances are rated relative to sucrose which has an index of 1.1819 The average human detection threshold for sucrose is 10 millimoles per litre. For lactose it is 30 millimoles per litre with a sweetness index of 0.318 and 5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline 0.002 millimoles per litre. Umami Main article: Umami Umami is an appetitive taste5 and is described as a savory3132 or meaty3233 taste. It can be tasted in cheese34 and soy sauce16 and while also found in many other fermented and aged foods this taste is also present in tomatoes grains and beans.34 Monosodium glutamate (MSG) developed as a food additive in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda4 produces a strong umami taste.16 A loanword from Japanese meaning "good flavor" or "good taste"35 Umami () is considered fundamental to many Eastern cuisines36 and was first described in 190837 although it was only recently recognized in the West as a basic taste.1638 Some umami taste buds respond specifically to glutamate in the same way that "sweet" ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of G protein coupled glutamate receptors.3940 Measuring relative tastes Measuring the degree by which a substance presents one basic taste can be done in a subjective way by comparing its taste to a reference substance. Quinine a bitter medicinal found in tonic water can be used to subjectively rate the bitterness of a substance.41 Units of dilute quinine hydrochloride (1 g in 2000 mL of water) can be used to measure the threshold bitterness concentration the level at which the presence of a dilute bitter substance can be detected by a human taster of other compounds.41 More formal chemical analysis while possible is difficult.41 Relative saltiness can be rated by comparison to a dilute salt solution.42 The sourness of a substance can be rated by comparing it to very dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl).43 Sweetness is subjectively measured by comparing the threshold values or level at which the presence of a dilute substance can be detected by a human taster of different sweet substances.44 Substances are usually measured relative to sucrose45 which is usually given an arbitrary index of 14647 or 100.48 Fructose is about 1.4 times sweeter than sucrose; glucose a sugar found in honey and vegetables is about three-quarters as sweet; and lactose a milk sugar is one-half as sweet.b44 Functional structure Bitterness Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors type 2 also known as T2Rs) such as TAS2R38 are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances.49 They are identified not only by their ability to taste certain bitter ligands but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound monomeric).50 Saltiness Saltiness is a taste produced best by the presence of cations (such as Na+ K+ or Li+)51 and like sour it is tasted using ion channels.51 Other ions of the alkali metals group also taste salty but the less sodium-like the ion is the less salty the sensation.citation needed As the size of lithium and potassium ions is close to that of sodium they taste similar to salt.citation needed In contrast the larger rubidium and cesium ions do not taste as salty.citation needed Other monovalent cations e.g. ammonium NH+ 4 and divalent cations of the alkali earth metal group of the periodic table e.g. calcium Ca2+ ions in general elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they too can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue.citation needed Sourness Sourness is acidity5253 and like salt it is a taste sensed using ion channels.51 Hydrogen ion channels detect the concentration of hydronium ions that are formed from acids and water.citation needed In addition the taste receptor PKD2L1 has been found to be involved in tasting sour.54 Sweetness Sweetness is produced by the presence of sugars some proteins and a few other substances.citation needed It is often connected to aldehydes and ketones which contain a carbonyl group.citation needed Sweetness is detected by a variety of G protein-coupled receptors coupled to a G protein that acts as an intermediary in the communication between taste bud and brain gustducin.55 These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer) which account for sweet sensing in humans and other animals.56 Umami-ness The amino acid glutamic acid is responsible for umami5758 but some nucleotides (inosinic acid3659 and guanylic acid57) can act as complements enhancing the taste.3659 Glutamic acid binds to a variant of the G protein-coupled receptor producing an umami taste.6061 Further sensations The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system. Calcium In 2008 geneticists discovered a CaSR calcium receptor on the tongues of mice. The CaSR receptor is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract kidneys and brain. Along with the "sweet" T1R3 receptor the CaSR receptor can detect calcium as a taste. Whether closely related genes in mice and humans means the phenomenon exists in humans as well is unknown.6263 Coolness Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This "fresh" or "minty" sensation can be tasted in spearmint menthol ethanol and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon. Dryness Some foods such as unripe fruits contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or rough sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. Examples include tea red wine rhubarb and unripe persimmons and bananas. Less exact terms for the astringent sensation are "dry" "rough" "harsh" (especially for wine) "tart" (normally referring to sourness) "rubbery" "hard" or "styptic".64 When referring to wine "dry" is the opposite of "sweet" and does not refer to astringency. Wines that contain tannins and so cause an astringent sensation are not necessarily classified as "dry" and "dry" wines are not necessarily astringent. In the Indian Ayurvedic tradition one of the 6 tastes is astringency (kasaaya).65 Fattiness Recent research has revealed a potential taste receptor called the CD36 receptor which reacts to fat (to be more specific fatty acids).66 This receptor was found in mice. Heartiness (kokumi) Some Japanese researchers refer to the kokumi of foods laden with alcohol and thiol-groups in their amino acid extracts and this sensation has also been described as mouthfeel. Numbness Both Chinese and Batak Toba cooking include the idea of (m or mati rasa) a tingling numbness caused by spices such as Sichuan pepper. The cuisines of Sichuan province in China and of the Indonesia province North Sumatra often combine this with chili pepper to produce a ml "numbing-and-hot" or "mati rasa" flavor.67 Spiciness Main articles: Piquance and Scoville scale Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation called piquance spiciness hotness or prickliness by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors. Two main plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers and piperine from black pepper. The piquant ("hot" or "spicy") sensation provided by chili peppers black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the worldespecially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates such as Ethiopian Peruvian Hungarian Indian Korean Indonesian Lao Malaysian Mexican Southwest Chinese (including Szechuan cuisine) and Thai cuisines. If tissue in the oral cavity has been damaged or sensitized ethanol may be experienced as pain rather than simply heat. Those having had radiotherapy for oral cancer thus find it painful to drink alcohol.citation needed This particular sensation is not a taste in the technical sense because a different set of nerves carry it to the brain. Though foods like chili peppers also activate nerves the sensation interpreted as "hot" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but without taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity under the fingernails or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. In Asian countries within the sphere of mainly Chinese Indian and Japanese cultural influence Piquance has traditionally been considered a sixth basic taste. Temperature Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink thatwithin a given cultureis considered to be properly served hot is often considered distasteful if cold and vice versa. For example alcoholic beverages with a few exceptions are usually best when served cold but soups are usually only eaten hot. Other concepts Supertasters Main article: Supertaster A supertaster is a person whose sense of taste is significantly more sensitive than average. The cause of this heightened response is thought to be at least in part due to an increased number of fungiform papillae.68 Aftertaste Main article: Aftertaste Aftertastes arise after food has been swallowed. An aftertaste can differ from the food it follows. Medicines and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste as can certain artificial flavor compounds such as aspartame (artificial sweetener). Acquired taste Main article: Acquired taste An acquired taste is an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed at first taste. Many of the world's delicacies are considered to be acquired tastes. Innervation Taste is brought to the brainstem by 3 different cranial nerves: Facial Nerve for the anterior 2/3 of the tongue. Glossopharyngeal Nerve for the posterior 1/3 of the tongue. Vagus Nerve for the small area on the epiglottis. Disorders of taste ageusia (complete loss of taste) dysgeusia (persistent abnormal taste) See also Palatability Optimal foraging theory Vomeronasal organ Notes Footnotes a. It has been known for some time that these categories may not be comprehensive. In Guyton's 1976 edition of Textbook of Medical Physiology he wrote: On the basis of physiologic studies there are generally believed to be at least four primary sensations of taste: sour salty sweet and bitter. Yet we know that a person can perceive literally hundreds of different tastes. These are all supposed to be combinations of the four primary sensations...However there might be other less conspicuous classes or subclasses of primary sensations"69 b. Some variation in values is not uncommon between various studies. Such variations may arise from a range of methodological variables from sampling to analysis and interpretation. In fact there is a "plethora of methods"70 Indeed the taste index of 1 assigned to reference substances such as sucrose (for sweetness) hydrochloric acid (for sourness) quinine (for bitterness) and sodium chloride (for saltiness) is itself arbitrary for practical purposes.43 Some values such as those for maltose and glucose vary little. Others such as aspartame and sodium saccharin have much larger variation. Regardless of variation the perceived intensity of substances relative to each reference substance remains consistent for taste ranking purposes. The indices table for McLaughlin & Margolskee (1994) for example1871 is essentially the same as that of Svrivastava & Rastogi (2003)72 Guyton & Hall (2006)43 and Joesten et al. (2007).46 The rankings are all the same with any differences where they exist being in the values assigned from the studies from which they derive. 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The Umami Information Center. http://www.umamiinfo.com/whatexactlyisumami/.  Lindemann Bernd (February 2000). "A taste for Umami taste" (PDF). Nature Neuroscience 3 (2): 99100. doi:10.1038/72153. PMID 10649560. http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n2/pdf/nn020099.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-30.  Chaudhari Nirupa; Ana Marie Landin Stephen D. Roper (February 2000). "A metabotropic glutamate receptor variant functions as a taste receptor" (PDF). Nature Neuroscience 3 (2): 113119. doi:10.1038/72053. PMID 10649565. http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n2/pdf/nn0200113.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-30.  a b c Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials Pg. 38 World Health Organization 1998. Food Chemistry (Page 38/1070) H. D. Belitz Werner Grosch Peter Schieberle. Springer 2009. a b c Guyton Arthur C; Hall John; Hall John E. (2006) Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (11th ed.) 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Belmont California: Thomson Brooks/Cole p. 359 ISBN 0-495-01213-0 http://books.google.com/booksid8hIoN3QzOkC&pgPA359&lpgPA359&dq%22relative+to+sucrose%22&sourcebl&otsE1txi4DsSX&sigwAbLIzj7Y5cCu2PeWOdiXfzr8nc&hlen&ei17ePTIK0LoXmvQPglYDqCw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum6&ved0CDAQ6AEwBTgK#vonepage&q%22relative%20to%20sucrose%22&ffalse retrieved 14 September 2010  CoultateTom P (2009) "Sweetness relative to sucrose as an arbitrary standard" Food: The Chemistry of its Components (5th ed.) Cambridge UK: Royal Society of Chemistry pp. 268269 ISBN 978-0-85404-111-4 http://books.google.com/booksidKF2A8Cz7B-cC&pgPA268&lpgPA268&dq%22relative+to+sucrose%22&sourcebl&otsfgH81scq2&sigSx6Jyj9oD2n3zbFadwwGRi5sIY&hlen&eikfSPTLfdMM6DcMLTL8M&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAzgo#vonepage&q%22relative%20to%20sucrose%22&ffalse retrieved 15 September 2010  Mehta Bhupinder & Mehta Manju (2005) "Sweetness of sugars" Organic Chemistry India: Prentice-Hall p. 956 ISBN 8120-32441-2 http://books.google.com/booksidQV6cwXA9XkEC&pgPA956&dq%22Organic+Chemistry+%22+taste&hlen&eiM7GQTLNOIT-vQOv67HfCw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CEAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 15 September 2010  Alternative ISBN 978-8120-32441-1  Maehashi K. M. Matano H. Wang L. A. Vo Y. Yamamoto and L. Huang (2008) "Bitter peptides activate hTAS2Rs the human bitter receptors" Biochem Biophys Res Commun 365 (4): 851855 doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.11.070 PMC 2692459 PMID 18037373 http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgitoolpmcentrez&artid2692459.  Lindemann Bernd (13 September 2001) "Receptors and transduction in taste" (PDF) Nature 413 (6852): 219225 doi:10.1038/35093032 PMID 11557991 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v413/n6852/pdf/413219a0.pdf retrieved 2007-12-30.  a b c Transduction channels in sensory cells (Page 155/304) Stephan Frings Jonathan Bradley. Wiley-VCH 2004. outlines of chemistry with practical work (Page 241) Henry John Horstman Fenton. CUP Archive. Focus Ace Pmr 2009 Science (Page 242/522) Chang See Leong Chong Kum YingChoo Yan Tong & Low Swee Neo. Focus Ace Pmr 2009 Science. "Biologists Discover How We Detect Sour Taste" Science Daily August 24 2006 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/08/060823184824.htm retrieved 12 September 2010  How the Taste Bud Translates Between Tongue and Brain nytimes.com August 4 1992. Zhao Grace Q.; Yifeng Zhang Mark A. Hoon Jayaram Chandrashekar Isolde Erlenbach Nicholas J.P. Ryba Charles S. Zuker (October 2003) "The Receptors for Mammalian Sweet and Savory taste" (PDF) Cell 115 (3): 255266 doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00844-4 PMID 14636554 http://download.cell.com/pdfs/0092-8674/PIIS0092867403008444.pdf retrieved 2007-12-30.  a b What Is Umami: What Exactly is Umami Umami Information Center Chandrashekar Jayaram; Hoon Mark A; Ryba Nicholas J. P. & Zuker Charles S (16 November 2006) "The receptors and cells for mammalian taste" Nature 444 (7117): 288294 doi:10.1038/nature05401 PMID 17108952 https://wiki.brown.edu/confluence/download/attachments/1444406/nature05401.pdf retrieved 13 September 2010  a b What Is Umami: The Composition of Umami Umami Information Center Lindemann Bernd (February 2000) "A taste for Umami taste" (PDF) Nature Neuroscience 3 (2): 99100 doi:10.1038/72153 PMID 10649560 http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n2/pdf/nn020099.pdf retrieved 2007-12-30.  Chaudhari Nirupa; Ana Marie Landin Stephen D. Roper (February 2000) "A metabotropic glutamate receptor variant functions as a taste receptor" (PDF) Nature Neuroscience 3 (2): 113119 doi:10.1038/72053 PMID 10649565 http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n2/pdf/nn0200113.pdf retrieved 2007-12-30.  Tordorf Michael G. (2008) "Chemosensation of Calcium" American Chemical Society National Meeting Fall 2008 236th Philadelphia PA: American Chemical Society AGFD 207 http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/contentnfpbtrue&pageLabelPPTRANSITIONMAIN&nodeid859&usesecfalse&securlvarregion1  "That Tastes ... Sweet Sour No It's Definitely Calcium!" Science Daily August 21 2008 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080820163008.htm retrieved 14 September 2010  http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/68000103/abstract http://www.ayurshop.com/diet/rasas.html Potential Taste Receptor for Fat Identified: Scientific American Spice Pages: Sichuan Pepper (Zanthoxylum Szechwan peppercorn fagara hua jiao sansho timur andaliman tirphal) Bartoshuk L. M. V. B. Duffy et al. (1994). "PTC/PROP tasting: anatomy psychophysics and sex effects." 1994. Physiol Behav 56(6): 1165-71. Guyton Arthur C. (1976) Textbook of Medical Physiology (5th ed.) Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders p. 839 ISBN 0-7216-4393-0  Macbeth Helen M. & MacClancy Jeremy ed. (2004) "plethora of methods characterising human taste perception" Researching Food Habits: Methods and Problems The anthropology of food and nutrition Vol. 5 New York: Berghahn Books pp. 8788 ISBN 1-57181-544-9 http://books.google.com/booksidZLQTSqfB5igC&pgPA88&dqplethora+methods+bartoshuk&hlen&ei8TGQTIlJ8jCcc3juc8M&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CCoQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qplethora%20methods%20bartoshuk&ffalse retrieved 15 September 2010  Paperback ISBN 1-57181-545-7  McLaughlin Susan & Margolskee Rorbert F (NovemberDecember 1994) The Sense of Taste American Scientist 82 pp. 538545  Svrivastava R.C. & Rastogi R.P (2003) "Relative taste indices of some substances" in . Transport Mediated by Electrical Interfaces Studies in interface science vol.18 Amsterdam Netherlands: Elsevier Science ISBN 0-444-51453-8 B.V http://books.google.com/booksidhIyMo4YFZ4C&pgPA274&dq%22same+concentration+(1M)%22&hlen&ei6yqRTIz4Ho-evQOM4dnBCw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CCwQ6AEwAA#vonepage&q%22same%20concentration%20(1M)%22&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Taste indices of table 9 p.274 are select sample taken from table in Guyton's Textbook of Medical Physiology (present in all editions)  Further reading Bartoshuk Linda M (June 1978) "The Psychophysics of Taste" American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31 (6): 10681077 PMID 352127 http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/31/6/1068.pdf retrieved 12 September 2010  Chandrashekar Jayaram; Hoon Mark A; Ryba Nicholas J. P. & Zuker Charles S (16 November 2006) "The receptors and cells for mammalian taste" Nature 444 (7117): 288294 doi:10.1038/nature05401 PMID 17108952 https://wiki.brown.edu/confluence/download/attachments/1444406/nature05401.pdf retrieved 13 September 2010  Chaudhari Nirupa & Roper Stephen D (2010) "The cell biology of taste" Journal of Cell Biology 190 (3): 285296 doi:10.1083/jcb.201003144 PMC 2922655 PMID 20696704 http://jcb.rupress.org/content/190/3/285.full.pdf retrieved 13 September 2010  Danker W.H (1968) Basic Principles of Sensory Evaluation Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials ISBN 978-0-8031-4572-6 http://books.google.com/idFU5y5GkSToC&printsecfrontcover&dqsensory+evaluation#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 13 September 2010  Dulac Catherine (March 17 2000) "The Physiology of Taste Vintage 2000" Cell 100 (6): 607610 doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80697-2 PMID 10761926 http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc471/pages/Lecture14/t-Dulac.pdf retrieved 13 September 2010  Finger Thomas E ed. (2009) International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste Boston: Blackwell for the New York Academy of Sciences ISBN 1-57331-738-1 http://books.google.com/idKyOHZtkHulEC&printsecfrontcover&dqInternational+Symposium+olfaction#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Alternative ISBN 978-1-57331-738-2 Hui Y.H ed. (2010) Handbook of Fruit and Vegetable Flavors Hoboken New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons ISBN 978-0-470-22721-3 http://books.google.com/idXRVpfmrKpZkC&printsecfrontcover&dq%22Handbook+of+Fruit+and+Vegetable+%22#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 13 September 2010  See especially comments and key references in regards taste  Thomas Hummel & Antje Welge-Lssen ed. (2006) Tast and Smell: An Update Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngolog Vol.63 Basel Switzerland: Karger ISBN 3-8055-8123-8 http://books.google.com/idfuxS-p6bpuwC&printsecfrontcover&dqTaste+smell#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Lawless Harry T. & Heymann Hildegarde (1998) Sensory Evaluation of Food: Principles and Practices New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers ISBN 0-8342-1752-X http://books.google.com/idBTR7VEJPDWAC&printsecfrontcover&dqsensory+evaluation+food#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 13 September 2010  Macbeth Helen ed. (2006) Food Preferences and Taste: Continuity and Change The Anthropology of Food and Nutrition Vol.2 Providence Rhode Island: Berghahn Books ISBN 1-57181-958-4 http://books.google.com/id10yea7-5dQ0C&printsecfrontcover&dq%22food+preferences+and+taste%22#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Paperback ISBN 1-57181-970-3 Patton Harry D (March 1950) "Physiology of Smell and Taste" Annual Review of Physiology 12: 469484 doi:10.1146/annurev.ph.12.030150.002345 PMID 15411178 http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.12.030150.002345 retrieved 12 September 2010  Reed Danielle R; Tanaka Toshiko; and McDaniel Amanda H (June 30 2006) "Diverse tastes: Genetics of sweet and bitter perception" Physiology & Behavior 88 (3): 215226 doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.033 PMC 1698869 PMID 16782140 http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgitoolpmcentrez&artid1698869 retrieved 13 September 2010  Reineccius Gary ed. (1999) Source Book of Flavours (2nd ed.) Gaithersburg Maryland: Aspen ISBN 0-8342-1307-9 http://books.google.com/idD9LBPoIe-F4C&printsecfrontcover&dqsource+book+flavours#vonepage&qsource%20book%20flavours&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Previously published 1994 by Chapman & Hall New York ISBN 0-442-00376-5  Schiffman Susan S (26 May 1983) "Taste and smell in disease (First of two parts)" The New England Journal of Medicine 308 (21): 12751279  Schiffman Susan S; Schiffman Susan S. (2 June 1983) "Taste and smell in disease (Second of two parts)" The New England Journal of Medicine 308 (22): 13371343 doi:10.1056/NEJM198306023082207 PMID 6341845  Schiffman S.S; Graham B.G (2000) "Taste and smell perception affect appetite and immunity in the elderly" (PDF) European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54 (Suppl. 3): S54S63 PMID 11041076 http://www.healthmegamall.com/Articles/BabeskinArticle247.pdf retrieved 16 June 2010  Seiden Allen M ed. (1997) Taste and Smell Disorders Rhinology and Sinusology New York: Thieme ISBN 0-86577-533-8 http://books.google.com/idJSvZN3y9hSAC&printsecfrontcover&dqTaste+smell#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Alternative ISBN 3-13-107261-X Shallenberger R.S (1993) Taste Chemistry London & New York: Blackie Academic & Professional (imprint of Chapman & Hall) ISBN 0-7514-0150-1 http://books.google.com/id8bjyjgClq0C&printsecfrontcover&dqtaste+chemistry#vonepage&q&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Svrivastava R.C. & Rastogi R.P (2003) "Relative taste indices of some substances" in . Transport Mediated by Electrical Interfaces Studies in interface science vol.18 Amsterdam Netherlands: Elsevier Science ISBN 0-444-51453-8 B.V http://books.google.com/booksidhIyMo4YFZ4C&pgPA274&dq%22same+concentration+(1M)%22&hlen&ei6yqRTIz4Ho-evQOM4dnBCw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CCwQ6AEwAA#vonepage&q%22same%20concentration%20(1M)%22&ffalse retrieved 12 September 2010  Taste indices of table 9 p.274 are select sample taken from table in Guyton's Textbook of Medical Physiology (present in all editions)  Xiaodong Li Lena Staszewski Hong Xu Kyle Durick Mark Zoller and Elliot Adler (April 2 2002) "Human receptors for sweet and umami taste" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (7): 46924696 doi:10.1073/pnas.072090199 PMC 123709 PMID 11917125 http://www.pnas.org/content/99/7/4692.full retrieved 13 September 2010  External links Look up sour in Wiktionary the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Taste Researchers Define Molecular Basis of Human "Sweet Tooth" and Umami Taste Statistics on Taste at National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. An informative overview with good list of references. v d eTaste Basic tastes Bitterness  Saltiness   Sourness  Sweetness  Savoriness Anatomy Epiglottis  Pharynx  Soft palate  Tongue Other Aftertaste  Acquired taste  Piquance  Scoville scale  Supertaster  Tongue map See also Sight  Hearing  Smell  Touch M: TST anat phys sysi - v d eNervous system: Sensory systems / senses (TA A15) Special senses Visual system/sight Auditory system/hearing Chemoreception (Olfactory system/smell  Gustatory system/taste) Touch Pain (Nociception)  Heat (Thermoception)  Balance (Equilibrioception)  Mechanoreception (Pressure vibration proprioception) Other Sensory receptor