"POTUS" redirects here. For political talk radio see P.O.T.U.S. (Sirius XM). For other uses see President of the United States (disambiguation). For a list see List of Presidents of the United States. President of the United States of America Official seal Incumbent Barack Obama since January 20 2009 Style Mr. President1 (informal) The Honorable2 (formal) Residence White House Term length Four years renewable once Inaugural holder George Washington April 30 1789 Formation United States Constitution March 4 1789 Salary $400000 annually Website whitehouse.gov/president

The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.

Article II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president and charges him with the execution of federal law alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive diplomatic regulatory and judicial officers and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances.3 Since the founding of the United States the power of the president and the federal government have grown substantially4 and each modern president despite possessing no formal legislative powers beyond signing or vetoing congressionally passed bills is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of his party and the foreign and domestic policy of the United States.5 The president is frequently described as the most powerful person in the world.67891011

The president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers the other being the Vice President of the United States.12 The Twenty-second Amendment adopted in 1951 prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as President or Acting President for more than two years of another person's term as President. In all 43 individuals have served 55 four-year terms.13 On January 20 2009 Barack Obama became the forty-fourth and current president. Contents 1 Origin 2 Powers and duties 2.1 Article I legislative role 2.2 Article II executive powers 2.2.1 War and foreign affairs powers 2.2.2 Administrative powers 2.2.3 Juridical powers 2.2.4 Legislative facilitator 2.3 Ceremonial roles 3 Selection process 3.1 Eligibility 3.2 Campaigns and nomination 3.3 Election and oath 3.4 Tenure and term limits 3.5 Vacancy or disability 4 Compensation 5 Post-presidency 5.1 Presidential libraries 6 Criticism 7 See also 7.1 Categories 7.2 Articles 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Origin This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) United States

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Other countries  Atlas  U.S. Government Portal view talk The Flag of the President of the United States

In 1783 the Treaty of Paris left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Second Continental Congress had drawn up the Articles of Confederation in 1777 describing a permanent confederation but granting to the Congress of the Confederationthe only federal institution createdlittle power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. In part this reflected the anti-monarchy view of the Revolutionary period; the new American system was explicitly designed to prevent the rise of an American tyrant.

By the end of the Revolutionary War the Continental dollar had depreciated to the point of worthlessness. The viability of the federal government was threatened by political unrest in several states efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts and the inability of Congress to raise revenue to pay off the public debts incurred during the war. The Congress also appeared unable to become a forum for productive cooperation among the States encouraging commerce and economic development. In response the Philadelphia Convention was convened ostensibly to devise amendments to the Articles of Confederation but which instead began to draft a new system of government that would include greater executive power while retaining the checks and balances thought to be essential restraints on any imperial tendency in the office of the president.

Individuals who presided over the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary period and under the Articles of Confederation had the title "President of the United States in Congress Assembled" often shortened to "President of the United States". However the office had little distinct executive power. With the 1788 ratification of the Constitution a separate executive branch was created headed by the "President of the United States". This new Chief Executive role no longer bore the duties of presiding over Congress in a supervisory role but the title "President" was carried over nevertheless. This title was a major understatement of the actual role empowered to the office by the Constitution and this choice of words can be seen as a deliberate effort by the Founding Fathers to prevent the head of state position from evolving toward becoming a monarchical position with the accompanying potential for abuse of such power.

A president's executive authority under the Constitution tempered by the checks and balances of the judicial and legislative branches of the federal government was designed to solve several political problems faced by the young nation and to anticipate future challenges while still preventing the rise of an autocrat. Powers and duties Article I legislative role Obama signing legislation at the Resolute desk. The first power the U.S. Constitution confers upon the president is the legislative power of the presidential veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented the president has three options: Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress expressing any objections; the bill does not become law unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote. Take no action. In this instance the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation. After 10 days not counting Sundays two possible outcomes emerge: If Congress is still convened the bill becomes law. If Congress has adjourned thus preventing the return of the legislation the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto. In 1996 Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill particularly any new spending any amount of discretionary spending or any new limited tax benefit. Once a president had stricken the item Congress could pass that particular item again. If the president then vetoed the new legislation Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York 524 U.S. 417 (1998) the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional. Article II executive powers War and foreign affairs powers Abraham Lincoln the 16th President of the United States successfully preserved the Union during the American Civil War. Perhaps the most important of all presidential powers is command of the United States armed forces as commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress the president commands and directs the military and is responsible for planning military strategy. The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69: The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. ... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces ... while that the power of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies all of which ... would appertain to the legislature.14 Emphasis in the original. Congress pursuant to the War Powers Resolution must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed rendering it ineffectual.15 Additionally Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Along with the armed forces the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments and negotiates treaties with other nations which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate. Although not constitutionally provided presidents also sometimes employ "executive agreements" in foreign relations. Frequently these agreements regard the orientation of executive discretion in the administration of matters germane to executive power; for example the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area how each country will enforce copyright treaties or how each country will process foreign mail. However the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift secret and/or concerted action arises. Administrative powers The president is the chief executive of the United States putting him at the head of the executive branch of the government whose responsibility is to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed." The executive branch has over four million employees including members of the military.16 Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6000 before he takes office and 8000 more during his term. Ambassadors members of the Cabinet and other federal officers are all appointed by a president with the "advice and consent" of a majority of the Senate. Appointments made while the Senate is in recess are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate. The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally a president may remove purely executive officials at his discretion.17 However Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.18 The president possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders. To the extent the orders are grounded in federal statute or executive power granted in the U.S. Constitution these orders have the force of law. Thus executive orders are reviewable by federal courts or can be rendered null through legislative changes to statute. Juridical powers The president also has the power to nominate federal judges including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves as is often done just before the end of a presidential term. Historically two doctrines concerning executive power have develop that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon 418 U.S. 683 (1974) that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones 520 U.S. 681 (1997) that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.19 President George W. Bush delivering the 2007 State of the Union Address with Vice President Cheney and Speaker of the House Pelosi behind him. The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in 1876 in Totten v. United States when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy.20 However the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds (1953) where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege.21 Before the September 11 attacks use of the privilege had been rare but increasing in frequency.22 Since 2001 the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan.212324 Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.2526 Legislative facilitator Representing the executive branch of government the president cannot simultaneously hold a seat in Congress. Therefore the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. The president can however take an indirect role in shaping legislation especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral but today are given as the State of the Union address which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. According to Article II Section 3 Clause 2 of the Constitution the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn. Ceremonial roles President Woodrow Wilson throwing out the ceremonial first ball on Opening Day 1916 As head of state the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium Washington D.C. on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every president since Taft with the exception of Jimmy Carter threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for either Opening Day the All-Star Game or the World Series usually with much fanfare.27 Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children.28 Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House. Since 1989 when the custom of "pardoning" the turkey was formalized by Ronald Reagan the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.29 Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition.30 Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.31 During a state visit by a foreign head of state the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961.32 This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.33 Selection process George Washington the first president of the United States Eligibility Article II Section 1 Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of president. A president must: be a natural born citizen of the United States;34 be at least thirty-five years old; have been a permanent resident in the United States for at least fourteen years. A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions: Under the Twenty-second Amendment no eligible person can be elected president more than twice. The Twenty-second Amendment also specifies that if any eligible person who serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president the former can only be elected president once. Scholars disagree whether anyone no longer eligible to be elected president could be elected vice president pursuant to the qualifications set out under the Twelfth Amendment.35 Under Article I Section 3 Clause 7 upon conviction in impeachment cases the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding other federal offices including the Presidency.36 Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment the Constitution prohibits an otherwise eligible person from becoming president if that person swore an oath to support the Constitution and later rebelled against the United States. However the Congress by a two-thirds vote of each house can remove the disqualification. Campaigns and nomination Main articles: United States presidential primary United States presidential nominating convention United States presidential election debates and United States presidential election The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates in advance of their national nominating conventions where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention. Nominees participate in nationally televised debates and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees third party candidates may be invited such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives. Election and oath Main articles: Electoral College (United States) and Oath of office of the President of the United States A map of the United States showing the number of electoral votes allocated to each state; 270 electoral votes are required for a majority out of 538 overall. Presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors collectively known as the Electoral College officially select the president. On Election Day voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College. The winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December about six weeks after the election to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming congress which was elected at the same time as the president. Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date known as Inauguration Day marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath: I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States and will to the best of my Ability preserve protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.37 Although not required presidents have traditionally used a Bible to take oath of office and suffixed "So help me God!" to the end of the oath. Further though no law requires that the oath of office be administered by any specific person presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States. Tenure and term limits Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to four terms before the adoption of the Twenty-second Amendment. The term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington the first president set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940 Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term but allowed his political party to "draft" him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941 the United States entered World War II leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944. After the war and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman who was president when the amendment was adopted and so by the amendment's provisions exempt from its limitation also briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election. Since the amendment's adoption four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower Ronald Reagan Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary surprising many Americans by stating "I shall not seek and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your president." Gerald Ford sought a full term after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term but was not elected. Vacancy or disability See also: Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution United States presidential line of succession Presidential Succession Act and Impeachment in the United States Vacancies in the office of president may arise under several possible circumstances: death resignation and removal from office. Article II Section 4 of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials including the president for "treason bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanors." Article I Section 3 Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however Johnson was acquitted by just one vote. Under Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president who then becomes acting president by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties when he transmits to those two officials a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007 President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times Bush returned to duty later the same day.38 Under Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment the vice president and a majority of the Cabinet may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president once they transmit a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and cabinet contest this claim it is up to Congress which must meet within two days if not already in session to decide the merit of the claim. The United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president but does not regulate the form of such a resignation or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State.39 On August 9 1974 facing likely impeachment in the midst of the Watergate scandal Richard Nixon became the only president ever to resign from office. The Constitution states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office death or resignation of the preceding president. If the offices of president and vice president both are either vacant or have a disabled holder of that office the next officer in the presidential line of succession the Speaker of the House becomes acting president. The line then extends to the president pro tempore of the Senate followed by every member of the cabinet in a set order. Compensation Presidential pay history Date established Salary Salary in 2009 dollars September 24 1789 $25000 $566000 March 3 1873 $50000 $865000 March 4 1909 $75000 $1714000 January 19 1949 $100000 $906000 January 20 1969 $200000 $1175000 January 20 2001 $400000 $487000 Sources:404142 The president earns a $400000 annual salary along with a $50000 annual expense account a $100000 non-taxable travel account and $19000 for entertainment.4344 The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001. The White House in Washington D.C. serves as the official place of residence for the president; he is entitled to use its staff and facilities including medical care recreation housekeeping and security services. Naval Support Facility Thurmont popularly known as Camp David is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County Maryland used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and his guests. Blair House located adjacent to the Old Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70000 square feet (6500 m2) of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed.45 For ground travel the president uses the presidential state car which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.46 One of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners serve as long distance travel for the president and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board.4748 The president also uses a United States Marine Corps helicopter designated Marine One when the president is aboard. The United States Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and his family. As part of their protection presidents first ladies their children and other immediate family members and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames.49 The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today the names simply serve for purposes of brevity clarity and tradition.5051 Presidential Amenities The White House Camp David Blair House Presidential State Car Air Force One Marine One Post-presidency Presidents Gerald Ford Richard Nixon George H. W. Bush Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter dedicate the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in 1991. Presidents George H. W. Bush Barack Obama George W. Bush Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter in the Oval Office on January 7 2009. Beginning in 1959 all living former presidents were granted a pension an office and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries which is $191300 as of 2008.52 Some former presidents have also collected congressional pensions.53 The Former Presidents Act as amended also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Until 1997 all former presidents and their families were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. The last president to have lifetime Secret Service protection is Bill Clinton; George W. Bush and all subsequent presidents will be protected by the Secret Service for a maximum of ten years after leaving office.54 Some presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland whose bid for reelection failed in 1888 was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives serving there for seventeen years and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives. Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations55 or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events.56 Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman.57 Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner international arbiter and election monitor and a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists Laura Ling and Euna Lee from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended working with his wife Hillary on her presidential bid. Currently there are four living former presidents: Living former presidents Jimmy Carter (D) served 19771981 George H. W. Bush (R) served 19891993 Bill Clinton (D) served 19932001 George W. Bush (R) served 20012009 Presidential libraries Main article: Presidential library Each president since Herbert Hoover has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers records and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private non-federal sources.citation needed There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also a number of presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum which is run by the State of Illinois. Criticism Criticism of the presidency generally falls into one of the following categories: Presidency is too powerful  Most of the nation's Framers expected Congress which was described first in the Constitution to be the dominant branch of government; they did not want or expect a strong executive.58 However numerous critics describe the presidency today as too powerful5960 unchecked and unbalanced61 and "monarchist" in nature.62 Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards "undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies."63 She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers such as executive orders decrees memorandums proclamations national security directives and legislative signing statements that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid interference or consent from Congress."63 Constitutional scholars have criticized excessive presidential power64 and described presidents as "constitutional dictators" with "an incentive to declare emergencies" to assume "quasi-dictatorial powers."65 David Sirota sees a pattern that "aims to provide a jurisprudential rationale for total White House supremacy over all government."6667 Another critic wrote that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule."68 Images and public relations  Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as "propagandized leadership" which has a "mesmerizing power surrounding the office";69 another described the aura surrounding the presidency with the word "cult."67 Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras; in one instance of a televised photo-op viewers were influenced by images and not by the story.70 One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed "in rich detail" which "drew on the power of myth" regarding the incident of PT 10971 and claimed that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions.72 Even presidential funerals are staged affairs with high production values to give an impression of "regal grandeur".73 As a result political commentators believe that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to "drive the economy vanquish enemies lead the free world comfort tornado victims heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees."74 Deficit spending  Few presidents over the past hundred years have been adept at keeping spending within limits. Presidents who promised to rein in spending had difficulty controlling budgets.75 The long-term historical pattern has been for the nation to have moderate surpluses except during recessions or wars and this pattern lasted until the 1980s.76 Reagan increased substantial deficits without a recession or war and budget deficits as a percent of GDP climbed from 1.6% in 1979 to 4.0% to 6.0% for most of the 1980s77 although there was a four-year period of surpluses beginning 1998 during the tenures of Clinton and Bush. After 9/11 spending returned under Bush and remained high.77 In 2009 the budget office estimated total federal debt would reach $12 trillion including interest payments of $565 billion or 4 percent of GDP.78 In the first decade of 2000 $632 billion was added to the budget.79 In 2009 the United States may be forced to borrow nearly $9.3 trillion over the next ten years according to one estimate.80 A critic and senator warned this "clearly creates a scenario where the country's going to go bankrupt."80 Obama inherited a budget deficit in 2009 of a staggering 10% of GDP.77 The high levels of federal employment brought about by Roosevelt's New Deal have held steady relative to increased economic output and population. In 1962 for example there were 13.3 federal civilian employees in the executive branch per 1000 population while in 2007 there were only 8.7 an increase of about 151000 employees.81 From 1962 to 2007 the total number of federal civilian executive branch employees increased by 6.1% while the population increased by 61.7%. However in the same period the number of employees in state and local governments almost tripled.81 Federal deficit 1940present Decade Deficit as % of GDP 1940s 9.67 1950s 0.39 1960s 0.79 1970s 2.37 1980s 3.93 1990s 2.16 2000s 1.62 Note: Largest deficit was for WW2. 19982002 had surpluses. For brevity annual numbers were combined into ten-year averages. Source: US Government statistics.76 Further information: National debt by U.S. presidential terms#Gross federal debt Legislative and budgetary powers  Some critics charge that presidents have usurped important legislative and budgetary powers that should normally belong to Congress. Presidents control a vast array of agencies that can make regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a "virtual army of 'czars' each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House".82 Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it and commentators have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution.83 Signing statements "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch"84 and have been used by the past four presidents.8586 This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional.87 One critic George F. Will sees an "increasingly swollen executive branch" and "the eclipse of Congress". He argued that this process has been continuing "for decades"88 and criticized the "marginalization" of Congress.88 Abuse of power  Presidents have sometimes resorted to illegal and extra-legal activities particularly during wartime. Lincoln suspended habeas corpus during the Civil War;89 Wilson imprisoned suspected communists without trial during the Palmer Raids;89 and Roosevelt interned over a hundred thousand Japanese-Americans during World War II.89 FDR used federal investigators to study tax and financial records of opposition politicians.90 In an effort to prevent terrorism George W. Bush authorized warrantless wiretaps which were later ruled unconstitutional91 as well as torture and denying detainees due process.92 Nixon broke numerous laws by asking operatives to burglarize the offices of a political opponent's psychiatrist as well as the Democratic National Committee then tried to cover up White House involvement with hush money in what became the Watergate scandal.93 Nixon's actions were in a way predicted by Tocqueville in Democracy in America (1835). Tocqueville argued that the re-electability of presidents was a grave cause for concern since presidents running for re-election were tempted to not only lose their impartiality but use the vast machinery of the State to further their re-election.94 Tocqueville warned: The President ... no longer governs for the interest of the State but for that of his re-election; he does homage to the majority and instead of checking its passions as his duty commands him to do he frequently courts its worst caprices ... Intrigue and corruption are the natural defects of elective government; but when the head of the State can be re-elected these evils rise to a great height and compromise the very existence of the country. When a simple candidate seeks to rise by intrigue his manoeuvres must necessarily be limited to a narrow sphere; but when the chief magistrate enters the lists he borrows the strength of the Government for his own purposes. In the former case the feeble resources of an individual are in action; in the latter the State itself with all its immense influence is busied in the work of corruption and cabal.94 Starting wars without a declaration from Congress  Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's Constitutionally defined task of declaring war.959697 While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war they asked for and got formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 the MexicanAmerican War the SpanishAmerican War World War I and World War II.9899 However presidents did not get official declarations for other military actions including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 190398 the Korean War98 the Vietnam War98 the invasions of Grenada100 and Panama (1990).101 However while not getting an official declaration of war presidents got Congressional approval in the first Iraq war (1991)102103 and second Iraq War (2003)104105 In 1993 one critic wrote "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution."106 Election advantages of incumbent presidents  Presidents in office and seeking a second term have an advantage over challengers107 and critics have charged that this is unfair. Since 1936 in the thirteen presidential elections where there was an incumbent incumbents won ten times challengers only three times (see table). Incumbent presidents seeking re-election enjoy advantages that challengers lack including the power to command greater media coverage and influence events as well as dispense government grants.108 One reporter noted "nearly all incumbents raise far more (money) than do their challengers" which brings an advantage to incumbents.109 PACs give most of their money to incumbents because they are more likely to win.110 One political forecaster suggested incumbency added 5 percentage points to a candidate's likely re-election results although circumstances such as economic growth and inflation could influence the outcome.111112 Presidential elections since 1936 with an incumbent Year Candidate Votes Candidate Votes Winner Notes 1936 Roosevelt 523 Landon 8 Incumbent 113 1940 Roosevelt 449 Willkie 82 Incumbent 114 1944 Roosevelt 432 Dewey 99 Incumbent 114 1948 Truman 303 Dewey 189 Incumbent 114 1956 Eisenhower 457 Stevenson 73 Incumbent 114 1964 Johnson 486 Goldwater 52 Incumbent 114 1972 Nixon 520 McGovern 17 Incumbent 114 1976 Carter 297 Ford 240 Challenger 114 1980 Reagan 489 Carter 49 Challenger 114 1984 Reagan 525 Mondale 13 Incumbent 114 1992 Clinton 370 GHW Bush 168 Challenger 114 1996 Clinton 379 Dole 159 Incumbent 114 2004 GW Bush 286 Kerry 252 Incumbent 115 Note: elections with no incumbent and third party candidates were excluded. Numbers are Electoral College votes. Further information: United States presidential election#Electoral college results Misusing the power to pardon  Presidents have been criticized for abusing this power. For example Ford pardoned the person who had earlier chosen him to be vice president Nixon; Ford's decision was criticized as a misuse of the pardon power.116 Presidents have been criticized for other pardon decisions as well. George H W Bush included an official suspected of hiding notes relating to the Iran-Contra scandal.117 Clinton issued 140 pardons on the last day of the term of office118 pardoning fugitives118 and prominent campaign contributors.118 George W Bush commuted the sentence of a staffer who had covered up administration complicity in the Valerie Plame Wilson matter.119120 Foreign policy management  Since there is no requirement that presidential candidates have foreign policy or military or diplomatic expertise and presidents manage foreign policy the quality of decision-making has varied from president to president. Assessments by foreign policy experts list both successes and failures in the past half-century. Important successes within the last half century included the breakup of the Soviet Union and avoiding World War III121 as well as the handling of the Cuban missile crisis in 1962.122 But numerous presidential decisions have been criticized including the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba123 specific military choices124 trading arms for hostages with Iran125 and decisions about initiating wars.125126127 The occupation following the Iraq War was criticized as being "catastrophically unplanned" and overall strategy with Iraq was called a "self-defeating alienation of allies."128 One critic noted a trend of the "militarization of U.S. foreign policy."129 Presidents have been accused of supporting dictators such as the Shah of Iran130 Musharraf of Pakistan131 and Marcos of the Philippines.132 Overall strategy regarding the Middle East has been criticized133 as well as the handling of North Korea133 and Iran.134 Critics have charged that partisan politics have interfered with foreign policy.135 See also Government of the United States portal Categories Category:Lists relating to the United States presidency Category:United States presidential history Articles Curse of Tippecanoe Fiction regarding United States presidential succession Historical rankings of United States Presidents Imperial Presidency The Imperial Presidency Imperiled presidency List of Presidents of the United States by languages spoken List of United States Presidents by age List of United States Presidents by military rank Presidential $1 Coin Program Religious affiliations of United States Presidents U.S. Presidents on U.S. postage stamps United States presidents with facial hair Vice President of the United States President of the Continental Congress Table of Presidents of the United States sortable by previous experience References "How To Address The President; He Is Not Your Excellency Or Your Honor But Mr. President". The New York Times. 1891-08-02. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.htmlres9D06E3D9143AE533A25751C0A96E9C94609ED7CF.  "Models of Address and Salutation". Ita.doc.gov. http://www.ita.doc.gov/itasec/Address%20and%20Salutation.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-04.  "Transcript of the Constitution of the United States Official". Archives.gov. http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitutiontranscript.html. Retrieved 2010-09-04.  The Influence of State Politics in Expanding Federal Power' Henry Jones Ford Proceedings of the American Political Science Association Vol. 5 Fifth Annual Meeting (1908) Retrieved on 17 March 2010 http://www.jstor.org/pss/1045815 Noer Michael; Perlroth Nicole (2009-11-11). "The World's Most Powerful People". Forbes.com. http://www.forbes.com/2009/11/09/world-most-powerful-leadership-power-09-intro.html. Retrieved 2010-09-04.  "The Most Powerful Man in the World is a Black Man The Los Angeles Sentinel". Lasentinel.net. http://www.lasentinel.net/The-Most-Powerful-Man-in-the-World-is-a-Black-Man.html. Retrieved 2010-09-04.  Michael Kailis (2010-01-20). "Vladimir Putin". AskMen.com. http://www.askmen.com/top10/entertainment60/70ctop10list.html. Retrieved 2010-09-04.  "Who should be the world's most powerful person". The Guardian (London). 2008-01-03. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jan/03/uselections2008.world.  by Jon Meacham (2008-12-20). "Meacham: The History of Power". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/2008/12/19/the-story-of-power.html. Retrieved 2010-09-04.  Fareed Zakaria (2008-12-20). "The NEWSWEEK 50: Barack Obama". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/2008/12/19/1-barack-obama.html. Retrieved 2010-09-04.  Our Government The Executive Branch The White House "The Executive Branch". Whitehouse.gov. http://www.whitehouse.gov/ourgovernment/executivebranch/. Retrieved 2009-01-27. . Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms so he is counted twice; as the 22nd and 24th presidents. Hamilton Alexander. The Federalist #69 (reposting). Retrieved June 15 2007. Christopher James A.; Baker III (July 8 2008). "The National War Powers Commission Report" (PDF). The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report. Retrieved 15 December 2010. "No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the President and Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead it relies on reporting requirements that if triggered begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution however Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional and no President in the past 35 years has filed a report pursuant to these triggering provisions."  "The Executive Branch". The White House website. http://www.whitehouse.gov/our-government/executive-branch. Retrieved October 17 2010.  Shurtleff v. United States 189 U.S. 311 (1903); Myers v. United States 272 U.S. 52 (1926). Humphrey's Executor v. United States 295 U.S. 602 (1935) and Morrison v. Olson 487 U.S. 654 (1988) respectively. Millhiser Ian (2010-06-01). "Executive Privilege 101". Center for American Progress. http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executiveprivilege.html. Retrieved 2010-10-08.  "Part III of the opinion in ''Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan''". Caselaw.findlaw.com. http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1537579.html. Retrieved 2010-11-29.  a b Frost Amanda; Florence Justin (2009). "Reforming the State Secrets Privilege". American Constitution Society. http://www.acslaw.org/Advance%20Spring%2009/Reforming%20the%20State%20Secrets%20Privilege.pdf. Retrieved 2010-10-08.  Weaver William G.; Pallitto Robert M. (2005). "State Secrets and Executive Power". Political Science Quarterly (The Academy of Political Science) 120 (1): 85112. "Use of the state secrets privilege in courts has grown significantly over the last twenty-five years. In the twenty-three years between the decision in Reynolds 1953 and the election of Jimmy Carter in 1976 there were four reported cases in which the government invoked the privilege. Between 1977 and 2001 there were a total of fifty-one reported cases in which courts ruled on invocation of the privilege. Because reported cases only represent a fraction of the total cases in which the privilege is invoked or implicated it is unclear precisely how dramatically the use of the privilege has grown. But the increase in reported cases is indicative of greater willingness to assert the privilege than in the past.".  Savage Charlie (2010-09-08). "Court Dismisses a Case Asserting Torture by C.I.A.". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/us/09secrets.html. Retrieved 2010-10-08.  Finn Peter (2010-09-09). "Suit dismissed against firm in CIA rendition case". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/09/08/AR2010090807334.html. Retrieved 2010-10-08.  Greenwald Glenn (2009-02-10). "The 180-degree reversal of Obama's State Secrets position". Salon.com. http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenngreenwald/2009/02/10/obama. Retrieved 2010-10-08.  American Civil Liberties Union (2007-01-31). "Background on the State Secrets Privilege". ACLU. http://www.aclu.org/national-security/background-state-secrets-privilege. Retrieved 2010-10-08.  Duggan Paul (April 2 2007). "Balking at the First Pitch". Washington Post: p. A01. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/01/AR2007040101262.html.  Grier Peter (April 25 2011). "The (not so) secret history of the White House Easter Egg Roll". Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/DC-Decoder/2011/0425/The-not-so-secret-history-of-the-White-House-Easter-Egg-Roll. Retrieved May 6 2011.  Hesse Monica (November 21 2007). "Turkey Pardons The Stuffing of Historic Legend". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/20/AR2007112002331.htmlsubAR&sidST2007112002354. Retrieved May 14 2011.  Gibbs Nancy (13-11-2008). "How Presidents Pass The Torch". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171185889600.html. Retrieved 06-05-2011.  Dorning Mike (22-01-2009). "A note from Bush starts morning in the Oval Office". Chicago Tribune. http://www.cleveland.com/news/plaindealer/index.ssf/base/news/1232616798110550.xml&coll2. Retrieved 06-05-2011.  James A. Abbott and Elaine M. Rice (1998). Designing Camelot: The Kennedy White House Restoration. Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 910. ISBN 0-442-02532-7.  "The White House State Dinner". The White House Historical Association. http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whhapress/pressarchives/whhainfo-statedinner.pdf. Retrieved May 14 2011.  Foreign-born Americans who were citizens at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible to become president provided they met the age and residency requirements. However this allowance has since become obsolete. See: Peabody Bruce G.; Gant Scott E. (1999). "The Twice and Future President: Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty-Second Amendment". Minnesota Law Review (Minneapolis MN: Minnesota Law Review) 83 (565). ; alternatively see: Albert Richard (2005). "The Evolving Vice Presidency". Temple Law Review (Philadelphia PA: Temple University of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education) 78 (811 at 8569).  See GPO Annotated U.S. Constitution 2002 Ed. at 611 & nn.77273. U.S. Const. art. II 1 cl. 8. Guardian "Bush colonoscopy leaves Cheney in charge" July 20 2007 3 U.S.C.  20 "Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries 1789+". University of Michigan. http://www.lib.umich.edu/node/11736/. Retrieved 2009-10-07.  Relative Value in US Dollars. Measuring Worth. Retrieved May 30 2006. Dept. of Labor Inflation Calculator. Inflation Calculator. Retrieved August 10 2009. "How much does the U.S. president get paid". Howstuffworks. Retrieved July 24 2007. Salaries of Federal Officials: A Fact Sheet. United States Senate website. Retrieved August 6 2009. "President's Guest House (includes Lee House and Blair House) Washington DC". http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/gsa/ep/buildingView.dopageTypeId17109&channelPage/ep/channel/gsaOverview.jsp&channelId-25241&bid724. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet US Secret Service Press Release (January 14 2009) Retrieved on 2009-01-20 Air Force One. White House Military Office. Retrieved June 17 2007. Any U.S. Air Force aircraft carrying the president will use the call sign "Air Force One." Similarly "Navy One" "Army One" and "Coast Guard One" are the call signs used if the president is aboard a craft belonging to these services. "Executive One" becomes the call sign of any civilian aircraft when the president boards. "Junior Secret Service Program: Assignment 7. Code Names". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/archive/eise/secret16.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-18.  "Candidate Code Names Secret Service Monikers Used On The Campaign Trail". CBS. 2008-09-16. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/09/16/earlyshow/main4452073.shtmlsourceRSSattrPolitics4452073. Retrieved 2008-11-12.  "Obama's Secret Service Code Name revealed". Eurweb. 2008-09-16. http://www.eurweb.com/story/eur48530.cfm. Retrieved 2008-11-12.  "Former Presidents Act (FPA)". U.S. Senate. 1958. http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/98-249.pdf. Retrieved 2007-01-05.  "Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks". Toledo Blade. 2007-01-07. http://toledoblade.com/apps/pbcs.dll/articleAID/20070107/NEWS09/70107004. Retrieved 2007-05-22.  18 U.S.C.  3056 "Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States". Associated Press. 1981-03-31. http://news.google.com/newspapersidTE4tAAAAIBAJ&sjidbM4FAAAAIBAJ&dqreagan%20assassination%201981&pg1392%2C4423618. Retrieved March 11 2011.  "FOUR PRESIDENTS". Reagan Presidential Library National Archives and Records Administration. http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html. Retrieved April 3 2011.  Biography of Richard M. Nixon The White House Michiko Kakutani (book reviewer) (July 6 2007). "Unchecked and Unbalanced". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "the founding fathers had 'scant affection for strong executives' like Englands king and ... Bush White Houses claims are rooted in ideas about the divine right of kings ... and that certainly did not find their 'way into our founding documents the 1776 Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787.'"  "The Conquest of Presidentialism". The Huffington Post. August 22 2008. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-sirota/the-conquest-of-presidentb120582.html. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  interview by David Schimke (SeptemberOctober 2008). "Presidential Power to the People Author Dana D. Nelson on why democracy demands that the next president be taken down a notch". Utne Reader. http://www.utne.com/2008-09-01/Politics/Presidential-Power-to-the-People.aspx. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  Ross Linker (2007-09-27). "Critical of Presidency Prof. Ginsberg and Crenson unite". The Johns-Hopkins Newsletter. http://media.www.jhunewsletter.com/media/storage/paper932/news/2007/09/27/NewsFeatures/Critical.Of.Presidency.Prof.Ginsberg.And.Crenson.Unite-2997235.shtml. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "presidents slowly but surely gain more and more power with both the public at large and other political institutions doing nothing to prevent it."  Michiko Kakutani (book reviewer) (July 6 2007). "Unchecked and Unbalanced". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "UNCHECKED AND UNBALANCED: Presidential Power in a Time of Terror By Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr. and Aziz Z. Huq (authors)"  a b By Dana D. Nelson (October 11 2008). "OpinionThe 'unitary executive' question What do McCain and Obama think of the concept". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-nelson11-2008oct110224216.story. Retrieved 2009-09-21.  Sanford Levinson (February 5 2009). "Wartime Presidents and the Constitution: From Lincoln to Obama speech by Sanford Levinson at Wayne Morse Center". Wayne Morse Center for Law and Politics. http://www.uoregon.edu/morse/democracy.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10. dead link Anand Giridharadas (September 25 2009). "Edging Out Congress and the Public". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/26/us/26iht-currents.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  David Sirota (January 18 2009). "U.S. moving toward czarism away from democracy". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgif/c/a/2009/01/18/INGP158S4G.DTL&typeprintable. Retrieved 2009-09-21.  a b David Sirota (August 22 2008). "Why cult of presidency is bad for democracy". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgif/c/a/2008/08/21/EDCQ12G3M0.DTL. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  Scott Shane (September 25 2009). "A Critic Finds Obama Policies a Perfect Target". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/26/us/politics/26activist.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "There is the small minority-owned firm with deep ties to President Obamas Chicago backers made eligible by the Federal Reserve to handle potentially lucrative credit deals. 'I want to know how these firms are picked and who picked them' Mr. Wilson the groups president tells his eager researchers."  Rachel Dykoski (November 1 2008). "Book note: Presidential idolatry is "Bad for Democracy"". Twin Cities Daily Planet. http://www.tcdailyplanet.net/article/2008/10/29/book-note-presidential-idolatry-quotbad-democracyquot.htmlminieventcalendar/2009/02/all. Retrieved 2009-11-11. "Dana D. Nelson's book makes the case that we've had 200+ years of propagandized leadership..."  John Neffinger (April 2 2007). "Democrats vs. Science: Why We're So Damn Good at Losing Elections". Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/john-neffinger/democrats-vs-science-why-b44733.html. Retrieved 2009-11-11. "...back in the 1980s Lesley Stahl of 60 Minutes ran a piece skewering Reagan's policies on the elderly ... But while her voiceover delivered a scathing critique the video footage was all drawn from carefully-staged photo-ops of Reagan smiling with seniors and addressing large crowds ... Deaver thanked ... Stahl...for broadcasting all those images of Reagan looking his best."  Dana D. Nelson (2008). "Bad for democracy: how the Presidency undermines the power of the people". U of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816656776. http://books.google.com/booksidqgAWphms5oMC&pgPA57&lpgPA57&dqkennedy+image+nelson+%22bad+for+democracy%22&sourcebl&otsBQX6dXpTNw&sigqbo2XZA-Exl28hYrX2vuwm532BI&hlen&eiZMr6Spr3K8anAfxk8X9DA&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum3&ved0CA8Q6AEwAg#vsnippet&qkennedy&ffalse. Retrieved 2009-11-11. "in rich detail how Kennedy drew on the power of myth as he framed his experience during World War II when his PT boat was sliced in half by a Japanese..."  Dana D. Nelson (2008). "Bad for democracy: how the Presidency undermines the power of the people". U of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816656776. http://books.google.com/booksidqgAWphms5oMC&dqkennedy+image+nelson+%22bad+for+democracy%22&qkennedy#vsnippet&qkennedy&ffalse. Retrieved 2009-11-11. "Even before Kennedy ran for Congress he had become fascinated through his Hollywood acquaintances and visits with the idea of image... (p.54)"  Alessandra Stanley (June 10 2004). "THE 40TH PRESIDENT: CRITIC'S NOTEBOOK; A Pageant Over 2 Decades in the Making". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/10/us/the-40th-president-critic-s-notebook-a-pageant-over-2-decades-in-the-making.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "If anyone is to be credited for providing regal grandeur to the ceremony it is Mrs. Reagan who with the help of the loyal aide Michael K. Deaver had always managed the stagecraft of her husband's political career."  Lexington (2009-07-21). "The Cult of the Presidency". The Economist. http://www.economist.com/blogs/lexington/2009/07/thecultofthepresidency.cfm. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "Gene Healy argues that because voters expect the president to do everything ... When they inevitably fail to keep their promises voters swiftly become disillusioned. Yet they never lose their romantic idea that the president should drive the economy vanquish enemies lead the free world comfort tornado victims heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees."  Justin Ewers (April 28 2009). "Why Obama Is Leaving the Reagan Era Behind When It Comes to Economic Policy". US News & World Report. http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/04/28/why-obama-is-leaving-the-reagan-era-behind-when-it-comes-to-economic-policy.htmlPageNr2. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "Despite his years of lip service to balancing the budget total discretionary spending had climbed almost 16 percent by the time he left office dwarfing the Carter budgets he had once criticized. Revenues limited by Reagan's tax cuts were never able to keep pace. The result was a spiraling national debt that nearly tripled during his two terms hitting $2.7 trillion."  a b United States Government (2009). "Historical TablesBudget of the United States GovernmentFiscal Year 2009". United States Government. http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2009/pdf/hist.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-15. "see pages 1112 2526 2829 3031 333334 The traditional pattern of running large deficits only in times of war or economic downturns was broken during much of the 1980s. In 1982 partly in response to a recession large tax cuts were enacted. However these were accompanied by substantial increases in defense spending. Although reductions were made to nondefense spending they were not sufficient to offset the impact on the deficit. As a result deficits averaging $206 billion were incurred between 1983 and 1992. These unprecedented peacetime deficits increased debt held by the public from $789 billion in 1981 to $3.0 trillion (48.1% of GDP) in 1992.(from p.11)"  a b c Timothy Taylor (November 14 2009). "The deficit doves". MinneapolisSt. Paul Star Tribune. http://www.startribune.com/opinion/commentary/70009157.htmlelrKArksc8P:Pc:U0ckkD:aEyKUiacyKUzyaP37DMDuaeyD5PcOiUr. Retrieved 2009-12-15. "The Congressional Budget Office projects that the accumulation of government debt from 2009 to 2012 relative to the size of the economy will outstrip the accumulation of debt in Reagan's first term of office."  Peter S. Goodman (July 7 2009). "Staggering Budget Gap and a Reluctance to Fill It". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/08/business/economy/08deficit.htmlpagewantedall. Retrieved 2009-12-15. "The deficit has grown in part because of the $787 billion spending package championed by the Obama administration to aid states generate jobs and increase benefits for the jobless. But these expenditures landed atop huge deficits run up by the Bush administration which had cut taxes and prosecuted an expensive war in Iraq. The Congressional Budget Office projects federal spending will exceed revenues by $1.7 trillion this year or about 12 percent of the nations annual economic output the largest deficit since World War II."  Nick Gillespie (January 24 2009). "Bush Was a Big-Government Disaster". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123275512887811775.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "Mr. Bush ... increased the size and scope of the federal government to unprecedented levels ... he added a whopping $345 billion (in constant dollars) to the federal budget ... added ... an additional $287 billion on top of that ... Mr. Bush has massively expanded the government"  a b Lori Montgomery (March 21 2009). "Deficit Projected To Swell Beyond Earlier Estimates". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/20/AR2009032001820.html. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "Tax collections meanwhile would lag well behind spending producing huge annual budget deficits that would force the nation to borrow nearly $9.3 trillion over the next decade $2.3 trillion more than the president predicted when he unveiled his budget request just one month ago."  a b United States Government (2009). "Historical TablesBudget of the United States GovernmentFiscal Year". United States Government. http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2009/pdf/hist.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-15. "Table 17.5GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION: 19622007 (page 335)"  Eric Cantor (July 30 2009). "Obama's 32 Czars". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/29/AR2009072902624.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Dana D. Nelson (October 11 2008). "The 'unitary executive' question". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-nelson11-2008oct110224216.story. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Christopher Lee (January 2 2006). "Alito Once Made Case For Presidential Power". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/01/AR2006010100788.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Dan Froomkin (March 10 2009). "Playing by the Rules". Washington Post. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/white-house-watch/bush-rollback/playing-by-the-rules.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Charlie Savage (March 16 2009). "Obama Undercuts Whistle-Blowers Senator Says". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/17/us/politics/17signing.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Transcript Ray Suarez and others (July 24 2006). "President's Use of 'Signing Statements' Raises Constitutional Concerns". PBS Online NewsHour. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/whitehouse/july-dec06/signing07-24.html. Retrieved 2009-11-11. "The American Bar Association said President Bush's use of "signing statements" which allow him to sign a bill into law but not enforce certain provisions disregards the rule of law and the separation of powers. Legal experts discuss the implications."  a b George F. Will op-ed columnist (December 21 2008). "Making Congress Moot". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/19/AR2008121902929.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  a b c Albert Gore (CQ Transcripts Wire) (JANUARY 16 2006). "Transcript: Former Vice President Gore's Speech on Constitutional Issues". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/16/AR2006011600779.html. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "GORE: President Lincoln of course suspended habeas corpus during the Civil War and some of the worst abuses prior to those of the current administration were committed by President Wilson during and after World War I with the notorious red scare and "Palmer Raids.""  Grigg William Norman (June 16 2003). "FDR's patriot purge. (Cover Story History)". The New American. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/FDR%27s+patriot+purge.+(Cover+Story+History).(Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt)-a0103088435. Retrieved 2009-10-29. "federal investigators 'were free to devote a great deal of energy and attention to the tax records and finances of politicians who sought to use anti-Semitic appeals to attack the Roosevelt administration'"  Dan Eggen and Dafna Linzer (August 18 2006). "Judge Rules Against WiretapsNSA Program Called Unconstitutional". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/17/AR2006081700650.html. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "U.S. District Judge Anna Diggs Taylor ordered a halt to the wiretap program secretly authorized by President Bush in 2001 but both sides in the lawsuit agreed to delay that action until a Sept. 7 hearing."  Staff writer (July 15 2008). "Book World: 'The Dark Side': The Inside Story of How The War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals (by Jane Mayer)". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2008/07/10/DI2008071001458.html. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "Since embarking upon its global war on terror the United States has blatantly disregarded the Geneva Conventions. It has imprisoned suspects including U.S. citizens without charge holding them indefinitely and denying them due process. It has created an American gulag in which thousands of detainees including many innocent of any wrongdoing have been subjected to ritual abuse and humiliation."  Richard Zoglin (August 8 1994). "TELEVISION: Nixon Without Nostalgia". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917198122500.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "paranoid Nixon White House of the early '70s so obsessed with political foes that it had a psychiatrist's office burglarized to get dirt on Daniel Ellsberg (who had released the Pentagon papers) and ordered the fateful break-in at the offices of the Democratic National Committee."  a b Alexis de Tocqueville translated by Henry Reeve (1899). "Democracy in America Volume 1". Google Books. http://books.google.com/booksidr-oJAAAAIAAJ&dq%22alexis+de+tocqueville%22+%22democracy+in+america%22&printsecfrontcover&sourcebl&ots5AbnvNh-dk&sigeFUrf2nQbROBV7aJ9cVg8C4h8Q&hlen&eiTKErS93kMcarlAfcxPyVBw&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum6&ved0CCMQ6AEwBQ#vsnippet&qreelection&ffalse. Retrieved 2009-12-18. "Intrigue and corruption are the natural defects of elective government; but when the head of the State can be re-elected these evils rise to a great height and compromise the very existence of the country. When a simple candidate seeks to rise by intrigue his manoeuvres must necessarily be limited to a narrow sphere; but when the chief magistrate enters the lists he borrows the strength of the Government for his own purposes."  Dana D. Nelson (October 11 2008). "The 'unitary executive' question". Los Angeles Times. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE5406CF20090501. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Steve Holland (May 1 2009). "Obama revelling in U.S. power unseen in decades". Reuters UK. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE5406CF20090501. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time Magazine. June 1 1970. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917187829000.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  a b c d "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time Magazine. June 1 1970. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917187829000.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Alison Mitchell (May 2 1999). "The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True.". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812 the Mexican War the Spanish-American War World War I and World War II."  Alison Mitchell (May 2 1999). "The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True.". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way."  Michael R. Gordon (1990-12-20). "U.s. troops move in panama in effort to seize noriega; gunfire is heard in capital". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1220.html#article. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley the Speaker of the House said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the Administration."  Stuart Taylor Jr. (September 4 2002). "An Invasion of Iraq Requires the Approval of Congress". The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/nj/taylor2002-09-04.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "Bush may eventually ask for a congressional vote. That would clearly be the wiser course politically. And that's what Bush's father did in early 1991notwithstanding his insistence then that he did not need congressional approval as a legal matter and his subsequent boast "I didn't have to get permission from some old goat in Congress to kick Saddam Hussein out of Kuwait."" dead link Andrew Rosenthal (1991-02-28). "Bush Halts Offensive Combat; Kuwait Freed Iraqis Crushed". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0227.html. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "The Speaker of the House Thomas S. Foley said: 'The majority in Congress voted to give the President the authority and he has taken that authority and I think conducted this operation brilliantly.'"  David E. Sanger with John F. Burns (March 20 2003). "Bush Declares Start of Iraq War; Missile Said to Be Aimed at Hussein". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/20/international/worldspecial/20IRAQ.htmlpagewantedall. Retrieved 2009-11-09. "Mr. Bush formally informed Congress in... a seven-page message to Congress he argued that force was now the only way to 'adequately protect the national security of the United States' and that topping the Iraqi government was 'a vital part' of a broader war against terrorism. The message was required under a statute passed last fall explicitly authorizing war against Iraq after the president determined that a diplomatic solution was impossible." dead link "Time Essay: Where's Congress". Time Magazine. May 22 1972. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171879072-100.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Michael Kinsley (March 15 1993). "The Case for a Big Power Swap". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917197799000.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  David R. Francis (September 2 2008). "Will pocketbooks pick the president". Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/Money/2008/0902/p25s20-wmgn.html. Retrieved 2009-12-18. "Nonetheless after recognizing that an incumbent president has an advantage the two models depend on the economic numbers for their results and have done better than many sophisticated political analysts in their predictive ability."  Schantz (editor) Harvey L. (1996). American Presidential Elections: Process Policy and Political Change. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-7914-2864-8. http://books.google.com/ideorXke-cHKIC&pgPA41&lpgPA41&dq%22advantages+of+incumbency%22+%22elections%22+president%3F&q%22advantages%20of%20incumbency%22%20%22elections%22%20president%3F. "The advantages of incumbency are many: presidents have the aura and experience of the office; they command media coverage; they are able to influence events; and they are able to dispense government grants. (p.41)"  Richard E. Cohen (August 12 1990). "PAC Paranoia: Congress Faces Campaign Spending Politics: Hysteria was the operative word when legislators realized they could not return home without tougher campaign finance laws.". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1990-08-12/opinion/op-7391campaign-finance-laws. Retrieved 2009-10-02.  Joseph A. Califano Jr. (May 27 1988). "PAC's Remain a Pox". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/27/opinion/pac-s-remain-a-pox.html. Retrieved 2009-10-02.  Peter Passell (November 28 1990). "Economic Scene; George Bush's Secret Weapon". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/28/business/economic-scene-george-bush-s-secret-weapon.html. Retrieved 2009-12-18. "The election game presented by Mr. Fair is so easy that anyone with a pencil can play. In the latest version of the formula derived from what statisticians call regression analysis a Democrat starts with a presumptive claim to 48 percent of the two-party vote. If he is an incumbent add five percentage points; if he is running against an incumbent Republican subtract five."  Peter Passell (November 28 1990). "Economic Scene; George Bush's Secret Weapon". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/28/business/economic-scene-george-bush-s-secret-weapon.html. Retrieved 2009-12-18. "Mr. Fair who has just updated his remarkably accurate statistical model for explaining Presidential election results to include the Bush-Dukakis contest suggests that nothing much can change the predisposition of voters to elect Republicans (especially incumbent Republicans) except parlous economic times."  Staff writer (October 13 1987). "Alf Landon G.O.P. Stand-Bearer Dies at 100". NEW YORK TIMES. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0909.html. Retrieved 2009-11-12. "523 Electoral Votes to 8 Roosevelt running for his second term won 27747636 votes to 16679543 for his Republican rival. Mr. Landon received 8 electoral votes to Roosevelt's 523."  a b c d e f g h i j k Matthew Ericson (November 3 2004). "THE 2004 ELECTIONS: THE PAST; Electoral College Shifts In Red and Blue". NEW YORK TIMES. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.htmlres9E0DE6DE163CF930A35752C1A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2009-11-12. "The coloring indicates which party's candidate received electoral votes in the state. Darker shades indicate that a different party captured the state than in the previous election. E.V.: Electoral votes received by a candidate P.V.: Share of the popular vote received by a candidate"  Mike Allen (November 3 2004). "Bush Aides Pushed to Declare Victory". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A21604-2004Nov3.html. Retrieved 2009-11-12. "Even before receiving a concession call from his opponent President Bush scheduled a victory announcement in Washington today with officials of his reelection campaign asserting that he has won at least 286 electoral votes"  David Johnston (1992-12-24). "Bush Pardons 6 in Iran Affair Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up'". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "But not since President Gerald R. Ford granted clemency to former President Richard M. Nixon for possible crimes in Watergate has a Presidential pardon so pointedly raised the issue of whether the President was trying to shield officials for political purposes."  David Johnston (1992-12-24). "Bush Pardons 6 in Iran Affair Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up'". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "The prosecutor charged that Mr. Weinberger's efforts to hide his notes may have 'forestalled impeachment proceedings against President Reagan' and formed part of a pattern of 'deception and obstruction.'... In light of President Bush's own misconduct we are gravely concerned about his decision to pardon others who lied to Congress and obstructed official investigations."  a b c Peter Eisler (2008-03-07). "Clinton-papers release blocked". USA TODAY. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-03-06-clinton-library-foiaN.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "Former president Clinton issued 140 pardons on his last day in office including several to controversial figures such as commodities trader Rich then a fugitive on tax evasion charges. Rich's ex-wife Denise contributed $2000 in 1999 to Hillary Clinton's Senate campaign; $5000 to a related political action committee; and $450000 to a fund set up to build the Clinton library."  Johanna Neuman (August 19 2009). "Robert Novak dies at 78; syndicated columnist and TV commentator". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-robert-novak19-2009aug1904381837.story. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "President George W. Bush later commuted Libby's 2 -year sentence."  Sheryl Gay Stolberg (July 3 2007). "For President Libby Case Was a Test of Will". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/03/washington/03bush.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "Indeed to administration critics the commutation was a subversion of justice an act of hypocrisy by a president who once vowed that anyone in his administration who broke the law would 'be taken care of.'"  Philip D. Zelikow (2009-11). "The Suicide of the East 1989 and the Fall of Communism". Foreign Affairs Magazine. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/65628/philip-d-zelikow/the-suicide-of-the-east. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "There was no World War III ... The Soviet Union and Poland held limited elections in early 1989 ... By the end of 1991 the Soviet empire had disintegrated. Although there had been some bloodshed in China and Romania there had been no great war."  "Essay: The Lessons of the Cuban Missile Crisis". Time Magazine. September 27 1982. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917192576900.html. Retrieved 2009-11-11. "Kennedy assembled a task force of advisers. Some of them wanted to invade Cuba. In the end Kennedy chose a course of artful restraint; he laid down a naval quarantine. After six days Khrushchev announced that the Soviet missiles would be dismantled."  "Essay: BAY OF PIGS REVISITED: Lessons from a Failure". Time Magazine. July 30 1965. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917183404000.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "U.S.-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion that had ended in disaster about a year and a half before."  David Ignatius (June 8 2004). "Protean Leader". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A23587-2004Jun7.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "But after suicide bombers destroyed the U.S. Embassy and Marine barracks there in 1983 Reagan decided to cut his losses and evacuate American troops ... The pullout from Lebanon was either an amoral retreat under fire or a prudent exercise of realpolitik depending on your perspective."  a b David Ignatius (June 8 2004). "Protean Leader". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A23587-2004Jun7.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "A somewhat more dubious example of the Reagan administration's realpolitik in the Middle East was the decision to trade arms to Iran to secure the release of U.S. hostages in Lebanon. When the secret deal became public Reagan managed the political fallout partly by insisting he had done nothing of the sort."  Dennis Ross (2005-01). "The Middle East Predicament". Foreign Affairs Magazine. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/60427/dennis-ross/the-middle-east-predicament. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "Iraq is a messfrom which the United States cannot easily extricate itself."  Lelyveld Joseph (2009-11-08). "Chuck HagelBiography". New York Times. http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/h/chuckhagel/index.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "A staunch conservative and a Vietnam veteran Senator Chuck Hagel of Nebraska is best known as the most outspoken Republican critic of President Bush's policies in Iraq."  Jacob Weisberg (August 29 2004). "All the President's Critics". New York Times: Books. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/books/review/29WEISBER.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "But these are largely stand-ins for their opposition to the Bush administration's catastrophically unplanned occupation of Iraq its self-defeating alienation of allies..." dead link Robert G. Kaiser (October 27 2008). "Iraq Aside Nominees Have Like Views on Use of Force". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/26/AR2008102602179.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "Bacevich who has endorsed Obama is a stern critic of what he considers the militarization of U.S. foreign policy and he regards this consensus as "far more important than any apparent differences" between the candidates and their advisers."  "The Mystic Who Lit The Fires of Hatred". Time Magazine. Jan. 7 1980. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917192385400.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "But the U.S. saw the Shah as a stable and valuable ally. ... the U.S. lent the Shah its all-out support. President Richard Nixon and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger allowed him to buy all the modern weapons he wanted. Washington also gave its blessing to a flood of American business investment in Iran and dispatched an army of technocrats there."  Michael Abramowitz and Robin Wright (November 21 2007). "Bush More Emphatic In Backing Musharraf". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/20/AR2007112002304.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "President Bush yesterday offered his strongest support of embattled Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf saying the general 'hasn't crossed the line' and 'truly is somebody who believes in democracy.'"  Henry Grunwald (May 12 1986). "Essay: Marcos Baby Doc Why Not the Rest". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917196135400.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "Some critics blame the U.S. for the existence of just about all the world's non-Communist dictatorships. While it is true that many of these receive U.S. support the forces that lead to dictatorship are usually beyond American control."  a b Joshua Micah Marshall (2003-11). "Remaking the World: Bush and the Neoconservatives". Foreign Affairs Magazine. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/59380/joshua-micah-marshall/remaking-the-world-bush-and-the-neoconservatives. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "In Israel ... After giving a low priority to the peace process during his first two years in office George W. Bush pushed the 'road map' for peace while relegating Yasir Arafat to the sidelines ... Finding himself stymied the new Palestinian prime minister Mahmoud Abbas resigned; Arafat faces death or expulsion while being lionized among his constituents; bombings continue; and the region is as volatile and violent as ever."  Castle Stephen (October 21 2009). "Iran's Nuclear Program". New York Times. http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/iran/nuclearprogram/index.html. Retrieved 2009-11-10. "American officials and international inspectors are concerned that Iran seems to have made significant progress in the three technologies necessary to field an effective nuclear weapon: enriching uranium to weapons grade; developing a missile capable of reaching Israel and parts of Western Europe; and designing a warhead that will fit on the missile."  Eric M. Weiss and Charles Lane (July 14 2006). "Vice President Sued by Plame And Husband". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/13/AR2006071301092.html. Retrieved 2009-11-08. "Plame and Wilson say that after Wilson accused Bush of twisting intelligence about Iraq's pursuit of weapons of mass destruction Cheney Rove and Libby conspired to 'discredit punish and seek revenge against the plaintiffs that included among other things disclosing to members of the press Plaintiff Valerie Plame Wilson's classified CIA employment.'"  Further reading Bumiller Elisabeth (January 2009). "Inside the Presidency". National Geographic 215 (1): 130149. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/01/president/bumiller-text.  Couch Ernie. Presidential Trivia. Rutledge Hill Press. March 1 1996. ISBN 1-55853-412-1 Lang J. Stephen. The Complete Book of Presidential Trivia. Pelican Publishing. September 2001. ISBN 1-56554-877-9 Leonard Leo James Taranto and William J. Bennett. Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House. Simon and Schuster June 2004 hardcover 304 pages ISBN 0-7432-5433-3 Presidential Studies Quarterly published by Blackwell Synergy is a quarterly academic journal on the President. Waldman Michael and George Stephanopoulos. My Fellow Americans: The Most Important Speeches of America's Presidents from George Washington to George W. Bush. Sourcebooks Trade. September 2003. ISBN 1-4022-0027-7 Winder Michael K. Presidents and Prophets: The Story of America's Presidents and the LDS Church. Covenant Communications. September 2007. ISBN 1-59811-452-2 External links Hail to the Chief Problems listening to this file See media help. Wikisource has original text related to this article: President of the United States Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Presidents of the United States Official "Executive Office of the President". http://www.whitehouse.gov/president/. Retrieved 2005-10-07.  "White House". http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/. Retrieved 2009-01-21.  Presidential histories A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 17871825  Presidential Election Returns including town and county breakdowns. "Life Portraits of the American Presidents". C-SPAN. http://www.americanpresidents.org/. Retrieved 2005-10-07.   A companion website for the C-SPAN television series: American Presidents: Life Portraits "Presidential Documents from the National Archives". http://www.footnote.com/us-presidents.php. Retrieved 2007-03-21.   A collection of letters portraits photos and other documents from the National Archives "The American Presidency Project". UC Santa Barbara. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/. Retrieved 2005-10-07.   A collection of over 67000 Presidential documents The History Channel: US Presidents Miscellaneous "All the President's Roles". Ask Gleaves. http://www.gvsu.edu/hauenstein/index.cfmid600041AC-93E7-4378-305E5A2BF6EC3C57. Retrieved 2006-10-20.   An article analyzing the president's many hats. "Allpresidents.org". Hauenstein Center for Presidential Studies. http://www.gvsu.edu/hauenstein/. Retrieved 2006-10-18.   An educational site on the American presidency. "Presidents' Occupations". http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0768854.html. Retrieved 2007-08-20.  Listing of every President's occupation(s) before and after becoming the Commander in Chief "Presidential Rankings". Wall Street Journal. http://www.opinionjournal.com/hail/printrankings.html. Retrieved 2005-10-07.   Opinion poll of how great each President is believed to be. The Great Republic: Presidents and States of the United States of America and Comments on American History Classical liberal perspective of Presidential history. "The Masonic Presidents Tour". The Masonic Library and Museum of Pennsylvania. http://www.pagrandlodge.org/mlam/presidents/index.html. Retrieved 2005-10-07.   Brief histories of the Masonic careers of Presidents who were members of the Freemasons. "The Presidents". American Experience. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/. Retrieved 2007-03-04.   A PBS site on the American presidency. Presidents of the United States: Resource Guides from the Library of Congress v d ePresidents of the United States George Washington  John Adams  Thomas Jefferson  James Madison  James Monroe  John Quincy Adams  Andrew Jackson  Martin Van Buren  William Henry Harrison  John Tyler  James K. Polk  Zachary Taylor  Millard Fillmore  Franklin Pierce  James Buchanan  Abraham Lincoln  Andrew Johnson  Ulysses S. Grant  Rutherford B. Hayes  James A. Garfield  Chester A. Arthur  Grover Cleveland  Benjamin Harrison  Grover Cleveland  William McKinley  Theodore Roosevelt  William Howard Taft  Woodrow Wilson  Warren G. Harding  Calvin Coolidge  Herbert Hoover  Franklin D. Roosevelt  Harry S. Truman  Dwight D. Eisenhower  John F. Kennedy  Lyndon B. Johnson  Richard Nixon  Gerald Ford  Jimmy Carter  Ronald Reagan  George H. W. Bush  Bill Clinton  George W. 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