For the current Congress see 112th United States Congress. United States Congress 112th United States Congress Type Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives Leadership President of the Senate Joe Biden (D) since January 20 2009 President pro tempore Daniel Inouye (D) since June 28 2010 Speaker of the House John Boehner (R) since January 5 2011 Structure Members 535 100 Senators 435 Representatives 5 Delegates 1 Resident Commissioner House of Representatives Political groups      Democratic Party      Republican Party Senate Political groups      Democratic Party      Independent (caucused with Democrats)      Republican Party Elections House of Representatives Last election November 2 2010 Senate Last election November 2 2010 Meeting place United States Capitol Website House of Representatives Website Senate Website

The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington D.C.

Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election. Each of the 435 members of the House of Representatives represents a district and serves a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population. Each state regardless of population has two senators; since there are fifty states there are one hundred senators who serve six-year terms. The terms are staggered so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. While it's theoretically possible to have total turnover in the House every two years and in the Senate every six years actual turnover is much less since most incumbents seek re-election and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90%.1 Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2.1 The formative era (1780s1820s) 2.2 The partisan era (1830s1900s) 2.3 The committee era (1910s1960s) 2.4 The contemporary era (1970stoday) 3 Congress in the United States government 3.1 Powers of Congress 3.1.1 Overview of congressional power 3.1.2 Enumerated powers 3.1.3 Implied powers and the commerce clause 3.2 Checks and balances 4 Structure 4.1 Committees 4.2 Support services 4.2.1 Library of Congress 4.2.2 Congressional Research Service 4.2.3 Congressional Budget Office 4.2.4 Lobbyists 4.3 Partisanship versus bipartisanship 5 Procedures of Congress 5.1 Sessions 5.2 Joint sessions 5.3 Bills and resolutions 6 Congress and the public 6.1 Challenges of reelection 6.1.1 Citizens and representatives 6.1.2 Expensive campaigns 6.1.3 Television as a factor 6.1.4 Public perceptions of Congress 6.2 Smaller states and bigger states 6.3 Congresspersons and constituents 6.4 Congressional style 7 Privileges and pay 7.1 Privileges protecting congresspersons 7.2 Pay and benefits 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Overview

Article I of the Constitution states "all legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative processlegislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves top presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases while the Senate decides impeachment cases.2 A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.2 In 1868 the House impeached Andrew Johnson but the Senate did not convict him.

The term congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A "Congress" covers two years and the current 112th Congress convened on January 3 2011.3 A legislator in either house is a "member of Congress" though usually only representatives are referred to in speech as a congressman congresswoman or congressperson because members of the Senate are almost universally referred to as senator.

Scholar and congressperson Lee Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it was a "driving force in American government"4 and a "remarkably resilient institution."5 Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy" according to this view6 even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination".6 One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure.6 Several academics described Congress:

United States

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Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies our ethnic religious and racial diversity our multitude of professions and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. Smith Roberts and Wielen4 Congress is constantly changing constantly in flux.7 In recent times the American south and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more minorities and women although both groups are still underrepresented according to one view.7 While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties civic associations interest groups and the mass media.6 Think of Congress as an automobile. While drivers of various skills can take the automobile in different directions on various types of roads the internal machinery of the vehicle plays a crucial role in determining how smooth the drive will be as well as how far and fast the driver can go.Julian E. Zelizer6 All congresspersons serve two distinct purposes that sometimes overlap: representation of local interests and lawmaking for the national interest.8 There has been debate throughout American history about how to straddle these dual obligations of representing the wishes of citizens and those of the nation.6 Compromise is often required.8 History Main article: History of the United States Congress The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the thirteen British Colonies in North America.9 On July 4 1776 the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. With no executive or judicial branch and minimal authority this government was weak10 and lacked authority to collect taxes regulate commerce or enforce laws.1112 George Washington presiding over the signing of the United States Constitution. Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a twochamber or bicameral congress.13 Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state.14 The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments.7 A compromise plan was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefitting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefitting smaller states).715 The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government.161718 To protect against abuse of power each branch of governmentexecutive legislative and judicialhad a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers.19 Furthermore there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers.20 The new government became active in 1789.2122 Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras with considerable overlap and included the formative era (1780s1820s) the partisan era (1830s1900s) the committee era (1910s1960s) and the contemporary era (1970stoday).23 The formative era (1780s1820s) Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced surprising the Constitution's Framers. Thomas Jefferson's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties in 1800. Supreme Court justice John Marshall empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803 effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. Henry Clay became a powerful force in Congress during the 1810s as House Speaker. Congress reflected tension between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces. General Andrew Jackson became president and reflected an era of populism. The partisan era (1830s1900s) These years were marked by growth in the power of political parties. The watershed event was the Civil War which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states rights. A Gilded Age (18771901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time lobbying activity became more intense particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool.24 Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress as well as calls for reform; sometimes reformers would attack lobbyists as corrupting politics.25 The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectively controlled by a half dozen men. The committee era (1910s1960s) The United States Capitol A system of seniorityin which long-time members of Congress gained more and more powerencouraged politicians of both parties to serve for long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s. Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment15 with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments).15 Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy.26 One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate.27 Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring congresspersons to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.28 The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats29 and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather than being initiated by Congress.30 The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years.313233 During this time Republicans and conservative southern Democrats34 formed the Conservative Coalition.3335 Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II.3637 Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees.38 Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise such as space flight and atomic energy policy.38 Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism and conducted televised hearings.3940 In 1960 Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both houses of Congress until 1994. The contemporary era (1970stoday) The Senate chose Archibald Cox to serve as special prosecutor investigating Watergate. Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman.41 Partisanship returned particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education.6 Congress began reasserting its authority.3042 Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions.43 Soft money could fund causes not tied to specific candidates could benefit him or her substantially nevertheless.43 Reforms such as the 2002 McCain-Feingold act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions.44 One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates."45 From 1974 to 1984 PACs grew from 608 to 3803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million454647 along with concern over PAC influence in Congress.4849 In 2009 there were 4600 business labor and special-interest PACs50 including ones for lawyers electricians and real estate brokers.51 From 2007 to 2008 175 congresspersons received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs.505253 In the late 20th century the media became more important in Congress's work."54 Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions."54 Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage.7 Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite.55 Congress in the United States government Powers of Congress Main article: Powers of the United States Congress Overview of congressional power Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause. Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes duties imposts and excises to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. There is vast authority over budgets although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm."23 Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.23 Congress's power of the purse authorizes taxing citizens spending money and printing currency. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes.56 The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch.56 Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states and coin money.57 Generally both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills.58 Congress authorizes defense spending such as the purchase of the USS Bon Homme Richard. Congress has an important role in national defense including the exclusive power to declare war to raise and maintain the armed forces and to make rules for the military.59 Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's Constitutionally-defined task of declaring war.60 While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 the MexicanAmerican War the SpanishAmerican War World War I and World War II61 although President Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent.61 In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 President Truman described the American response as a "police action".62 According to Time magazine in 1970 "U.S. presidents had ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times."61 In 1993 Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution" and that the "real erosion of Congress's war power began after World War II."636465 Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history.66 Congress can establish post offices and post roads issue patents and copyrights fix standards of weights and measures establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court and "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States or in any department or officer thereof." Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. Congress oversees other government branches for example the investigation of President Nixon and Watergate. One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch.67 Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power.68 Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case.69 There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions.70 Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help a congressperson win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal allowing impeachment and removal of the president federal judges and other federal officers.71 There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress.72 So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch" according to one account.73 Past presidents including Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush Bill Clinton and George W. Bush74 have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it and commentators including the American Bar Association have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution.7576 There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress.77 In 2008 George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters."78 Enumerated powers Main article: Powers of the United States Congress#Enumerated powers The Constitution details the powers of Congress in detail. In addition other congressional powers have been granted or confirmed by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865) Fourteenth (1868) and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans including voting rights due process and equal protection under the law.79 Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments not Congress.80 Implied powers and the commerce clause Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States or in any department or officer thereof."81 Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause the enumerated power to regulate commerce in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.8283 Checks and balances Main article: U.S. Congress in relation to the president and Supreme Court View of the United States Capitol from the United States Supreme Court building. Congressperson Lee Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government: To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each otherbalancing powers among the three branches: Congress the president and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens as spelled out in the Bill of Rights ... no one part of government dominates the other.Congressman Lee Hamilton4 The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.484 The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership presidential political influence historical circumstances such as war and individual initiative by congresspersons. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards.4 The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt Wilson FDR Nixon Reagan and George W. Bush.85 However in recent years Congress has restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless the Presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century.485 Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to congresspersons because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies.86 Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies and this is a task that Congress is ill-suited for. Congress is slow open divided and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity according to one analysis.87 The impeachment trial of President Clinton in 1999 Chief Justice William Rehnquist presiding. The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for "Treason Bribery or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors." Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974 Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office. The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials judges and other high officers "by and with the advice and consent" of the Senate. It confirms most presidential nominees but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result presidential arm-twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example President Obama's secretary of state Hillary Rodham Clinton urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010.88 The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials other than filling vacancies in the office of Vice-President; a vote in each House is required to confirm a president's nomination for vice-president if a vacancy happens.89 In 1803 the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison holding however that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers. Alexander Hamilton for example mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78. Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should might or could have said.90 Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857 for example the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision.91 At the same time the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations. Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation to test the effectiveness of laws already passed and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings and if necessary compel individuals to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate by issuing subpoenas.9293 Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards.93 Congress in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters generates an incredible amount of information in various forms and can be described as a publisher.94 Indeed it publishes House and Senate reports94 and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats.94 Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority.95 The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws.96 It is a huge body of rulings contained in the United States Code arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form".97 Structure Main article: Structure of the U.S. Congress Congress is split into two branchesHouse and Senateand manages the huge task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some congresspersons are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information and congresspersons have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition a vast industry of lobbyists helps congresspersons write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests. Committees Main article: United States congressional committee Second committee room in Congress Hall in Philadelphia Specialization. The committee structure permits congresspersons to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member of Congress be an expert on all subject areas before Congress.98 As time goes by members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and tradeoffs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member's constituency important regional issues prior background and experience.99 Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap.100 Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs.101 Power. Committees write legislation. While procedures such as the House discharge petition process can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms. Legislative oversight and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information evaluate alternatives and identify problems.102 They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber.102 In addition they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.102 Officers. At the start of each two-year session the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as its majority leader. In the Senate the Vice President is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition the Senate elects an officer called the President pro tempore. Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there's a change in party control. Accordingly the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. Support services Library of Congress Main article: Library of Congress The Library of Congress was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington D.C.; the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper Virginia; a large book storage facility located at Ft. Meade Maryland; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burned by a British raiding party during the War of 1812 but the library's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson's private library. One of the Library's missions is to serve the Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books films maps photographs music manuscripts graphics and materials in 470 languages.103 Congressional Research Service Main article: Congressional Research Service The Congressional Research Service provides detailed up-to-date and non-partisan research for senators representatives and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation helps members analyze a bill facilitates public hearings makes reports consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House's think tank" and has a staff of about 900 employees.104 Congressional Budget Office Main article: Congressional Budget Office The Congressional Budget Office or CBO is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress.105 It was created as an independent nonpartisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt106 as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate's Appropriations Committee. The Speaker of the House and the Senate's President pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO Director for a four year term. Lobbyists Main article: Lobbying in the United States Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007 there were approximately 17000 federal lobbyists in Washington.107 They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro-bono for issues in which they are personally interested. The term lobby is from Britain based on approaches by interest groups directed at Members of Parliament who would meet in the lobbies of the House of Commons. Partisanship versus bipartisanship Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties known as bipartisanship and periods of fierce political infighting known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades108 but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.109110 Procedures of Congress Main article: Procedures of the U.S. Congress Sessions A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions" one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol. Joint sessions Main article: Joint session of the United States Congress Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president's State of the Union address. The constitutionally-mandated annual "speech" modeled on Britain's Speech from the Throne was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except when counting presidential electoral votes when the vice president presides. Bills and resolutions The House Financial Services committee meets. Committee members sit in the tiers of raised chairs while those testifying and audience members sit below. Ideas for legislation can come from members lobbyists state legislatures constituents legislative counsel or executive agencies. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review.111 A proposal is usually in one of these forms: Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives" followed by a number kept as it progresses.96 Joint resolutions. There is little difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House for example begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number.96 Concurrent Resolutions affect only both House and Senate and accordingly are not presented to the president for approval later. In the House it begins with "H.Con.Res."96 Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res."96 Congresspersons introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk.96 It's assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage.96 Drafting statutes requires "great skill knowledge and experience" and sometimes take a year or more.111 Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However the Constitution provides that: "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." While the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills it has power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.112 Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent" for noncontroversial matters.113 House and Senate rules can be complex sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before becoming a law.4 Members sometimes use experts such as Walter Oleszek to learn about proper procedures.114 Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office.115 Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month.116 Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes publicly to close the meeting.116 A committee might call for public hearings on important bills.117 Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill.96 Then a bill may go to what's called a mark-up session where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions.96 Committees may also amend the bill but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so-called clean bill with a new number.96 Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.118 A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex96 and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled." Consideration of a bill requires itself a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debatetime limits possibility of further amendments and such.96 Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak.96 Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it.96 Generally discussion requires a quorum usually half of the total number of representatives before discussion can begin although there are exceptions.119 The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows. Once a bill is approved by one house it is sent to the other which may pass reject or amend it. For the bill to become law both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill.96 If the second house amends the bill then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives96 sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills.112 Both Houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits.112 If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee the bill passes otherwise it fails. The Constitution specifies that a majority of members known as a quorum be present before doing business in each house. However the rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Since representatives and senators who are present rarely demand quorum calls debate often continues despite the lack of a majority. Voting within Congress can take many forms including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting.120 Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye" or "no" and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution however requires a recorded vote if demanded by one-fifth of the members present. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll call voting in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators each senator stating "aye" or "no" when his or her name is announced. The House reserves roll call votes for the most formal matters as a roll-call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie the motion in question fails. In the Senate the vice president may cast the tiebreaking vote if he or she is present. Most votes including quorum votes are done electronically and allow members to vote yea or nay or present or open.120 Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition paper ballots are used on some occasionsyea indicated by green and nay by red.120 One member can not cast a vote for another.120 Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.121122 After passage by both houses a bill is considered to be enrolled and is sent to the president for approval.96 The president may sign it making it law or veto it perhaps returning it to Congress with his objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally the president may do nothingneither signing nor vetoing the billand then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress. Congress and the public Main article: U.S. Congress and citizens Challenges of reelection Citizens and representatives Senators face reelection every six years and congresspersons every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home districts.54 Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund-raising which distracts representatives from paying attention to governing according to some critics.123123 although others respond that the process is necessary to keep congresspersons in touch with voters. In this example the more even distribution is on the left and the gerrymandering is on the right. Nevertheless elected congresspersons running for reelection known as incumbents have strong advantages over challengers.43 They raise more money.48 Since donors expect incumbents to win they give their funds to them rather than challengers.46124 And donations are vital for winning elections.125 One critic compared being elected to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university.124 Other advantages for House congresspersons is the practice of gerrymandering.126127 After each ten year census states are allocated representatives based on population and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. Both senators and congresspersons enjoy free mailings called franking privileges. As a result reelection rates of members of Congress seeking repeated terms hovers around 90%1 causing some critics to accuse them of being a privileged class.7 Academics such as Princeton's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering. Expensive campaigns In 1971 the cost of running for congress in Utah was $70000128 but costs have climbed.129 The biggest expense is television ads.47124128130131 Today's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat and six million or more for a Senate seat.747130132133 Since fundraising is vital "members of Congress are forced to spend ever-increasing hours raising money for their re-election."134 Nevertheless the Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue.129 Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters."129 Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection.7 Critics contend that congresspersons are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens.7 Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president's coattails") although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s.43 Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising.135136 But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992 only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive.137 Television as a factor Since congresspersons must advertise heavily on television this almost always requires so-called negative advertising which smears an opponent's character without focus on issues and these attack ads are considered by most political operatives as necessary. Negative advertising is seen as effective since "the messages tend to stick."138 Attack ads are prevalent in most congressional races today.139 But this has the unintended consequence of souring the public on the political process in general. What's come to describe most congresspersons today is a need to avoid blame.140 One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election which leads to a culture of risk avoidance as well as a need to make policy decisions behind closed-doors140 along with efforts to concentrate publicity efforts at their home districts.54 Public perceptions of Congress The Federalist Papers argued in favor of a strong connection between citizens and their representatives. Prominent Founding Fathers writing in the Federalist Papers felt elections were essential to liberty and that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential141 and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured."141 In 2009 however few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress.142143144 The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did in fact vote was 63% in 1960 but has been falling since although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election.145 Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have in the last few decades hovered around 25% in the last two decades with some variation.7146147148149150151 Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size messiness virtues and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution ... unlike the presidency Congress is difficult to conceptualize."152 Others scholars suggest that despite the criticism "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution ... its place in the political process is not threatened ... it is rich in resources" and that most members behave ethically.5 They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend" and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress which is an "old form of American politics" that further undermines Congress's reputation with the public:7 The close presidential election between Obama and McCain in 2008 brought more people to the polls (reversing a trend). The rough-and-tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil human frailties too often taint its membership and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Still we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society conducted a public debate on the major issues found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully and limited the power of our executive military and judicial institutions ... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public's confidence in government generally ... the legislative process is easy to dislikeit often generates political posturing and grandstanding it necessarily involves compromise and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also members of Congress often appear self-serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals even when they involve a single member add to the public's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution's low ratings in opinion polls.Smith Roberts & Wielen7 An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that Congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science and engineering and economics.7 As a result Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch.7 Smaller states and bigger states When the Constitution was ratified in 1787 the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelvetoone. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state large and small an equal vote in the Senate.153 Since each state has two senators residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787 the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006 for example California had seventy times the population of Wyoming.154 Critics such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states."155156157 However others argue that the Connecticut compromise was deliberately intended by the Framers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population153 and contend that the result works well on balance. Congresspersons and constituents Congresspersons provide constituent services like attending local meetings or events. A major role for congresspersons is providing services to constituents.158 Constituents request assistance with problems.159 Providing services helps congresspersons win votes and elections126160161 and can make a difference in close races.162 Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies.4 One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style.163 Congressional style One way to categorize lawmakers according to political scientist Richard Fenno is by their general motivation: Reelection. These are lawmakers who "never met a voter they didn't like" and provide excellent constituent services. Good public policy. Legislators who "burnish a reputation for policy expertise and leadership." Power in the chamber. Lawmakers who spend serious time along the "rail of the House floor or in the Senate cloakroom ministering to the needs of their colleagues."163 Famous legislator Henry Clay in the mid-19th century was described as an "issue entrepreneur" who looked for issues to serve his ambitions.163 Privileges and pay Privileges protecting congresspersons Congresspersons enjoy the privilege of being free from arrest in all cases except for treason felony and breach of the peace. This constitutionally-derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions.164 The term arrest has been interpreted broadly and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on his or her own but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules however are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose. The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House they shall not be questioned in any other Place." Accordingly a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches and may punish members who transgress them. Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress. Each branch has the power to cite individuals for contempt but can only issue a contempt citationthe judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year. The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials borderline material is often sent especially in the run-up to an election by those in close races.165166 Indeed some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers.1167 Pay and benefits From 1789 to 1815 members of Congress received only a daily payment of $6 while in session. Members began receiving an annual salary in 1815 of $1500 per year.168169 In 2006 congresspersons received a yearly salary of $165200.169 Congressional leaders were paid $183500 per year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives earns $212100 annually. The salary of the President pro tempore for 2006 was $183500 equal to that of the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate.170 Privileges include having an office and paid staff.118 In 2008 non-officer members of Congress earned $169300 annually.146 Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income of $45113 for men and $35102 for women.171 Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government.146 Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute.172 Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress.128131 Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like Federal employees members contribute one-third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two-thirds.173 The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of his or her salary. By law the starting amount of a member's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of his or her final salary. In 2006 the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60972 while those who retired under FERS or in combination with CSRS was $35952.174 Congresspersons are encouragedby whom to journey on fact-finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example the Wall Street Journal reported lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense which included spas $300-per-night extra unused rooms and shopping excursions.175 Lawmakers respond that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington" and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations.175 See also Government of the United States portal Caucuses of the United States Congress Elections in the United States (Congressional Elections) List of current members of the United States House of Representatives List of current United States Senators List of United States Congresses Members of the 111th United States Congress Oath of office (United States) Party divisions of United States Congresses Term limits in the United States United States Congressional Baseball Game United States congressional hearing United States presidents and control of congress Notes a b c Perry Bacon Jr. (August 31 2009). "Post Politics Hour: Weekend Review and a Look Ahead". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2009/08/27/DI2009082703265.html. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  Huckabee David C. (2003). Reelection Rates of Incumbents. Hauppauge New York: Novinka Books an imprint of Nova Science Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 1590335090. http://books.google.com/idNSFntwPRYmUC&pgPA21&lpgPA21&dqcongress%3F+re-election%3F+statistic%3F+(%2290%25%22+or+%2290+percent%22)&q.  David C. Huckabee -- Analyst in American National Government -- Government Division (1995-03-08) (PDF). Reelection rate of House Incumbents 1790-1990 Summary (page 2). Congressional Research Service -- The Library of Congress. http://www.policyarchive.org/handle/10207/bitstreams/265.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  Janice Francis-Smith (2008-10-22). "Waging campaigns against incumbents in Oklahoma". The Oklahoma City Journal Record. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/miqn4182/is20081022/ain30925232/. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  "How To Clean Up The Mess From Inside The System A Plea--And A Plan--To Reform Campaign Finance Before It's Too". NEWSWEEK. October 28 1996. http://www.newsweek.com/id/103143. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  a b John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/congress.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "In the matter of impeachments the House of Representatives presents the charges-...."  Steven Chambers (January 6 2009). "111th Congress convenes and vows quick action on economy". Newark Star-Ledger. http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2009/01/111thcongressconvenesandvo.html. Retrieved 2009-11-02.  a b c d e f g h Lee Hamilton (2004). "How Congress works and why you should care". Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34425-5. http://books.google.com/booksidbmFSp3b8JoC&dqHow+Congress+Works+and+Why+You+Should+Care&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiTSqMTJf-BoTGlQf8rMhk&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCUQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "James Madison principal drafter of the Constitution held that in a representative democracy like ours "the legislative authority necessarily dominates.""  a b Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... Congress is a remarkably resilient institution.(see page 23)"  a b c d e f g Julian E. Zelizer (editor) Joanne Barrie Freeman Jack N. Rakove Alan Taylor and others (2004). "The American Congress: The Building of Democracy". Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-17906-2. http://books.google.com/booksidMGEIIwT5pUC&printsecfrontcover&dqZelizer+Julian+2004+American+Congress+The+Building+of+Democracy&sourcebl&ots4V8JPn6c9n&sig2IIfzUmUDoNHVuOwI7v1Ithh0hw&hlen&eiWOCMTMLdHYP6lweYqp1i&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qZelizer%20Julian%202004%20American%20Congress%20The%20Building%20of%20Democracy&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Texan Sam Rayburn in 1940s & 1950s met in a former committee room called the "Board of Education" in the Capitol's ground floor ... a place where senators and representatives could meet and do the hard business of a legislature: discuss deal compromise" page xiii xiv"  a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Congress is ... frequently changed by its members."  a b Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... Congress serves two not wholly compatible purposes representation and lawmaking..(see pages 25-26)"  Kramnick Isaac (ed); Thomas Paine (1982). Common Sense. Penguin Classics. p. 21.  "References about weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation".  Pauline Maier (book reviewer) (November 18 2007). "HISTORY -- The Framers' Real Motives (book review) UNRULY AMERICANS AND THE ORIGINS OF THE CONSTITUTION book by Woody Holton". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/15/AR2007111502145.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  "The Constitution and the Idea of Compromise". PBS. 2009-10-10. http://www.pbs.org/georgewashington/classroom/index2.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  Alexander Hamilton (1788). "FEDERALIST No. 15 -- The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union". FoundingFathers.info. http://www.foundingfathers.info/federalistpapers/fed15.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  English (2003) pp. 56 Collier (1986) p. 5 James Madison (1787). "James Madison and the Federal Constitutional Convention of 1787 -- Engendering a National Government". The Library of Congress -- American memory. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/madisonpapers/mjmconst.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  "The Founding Fathers: New Jersey". The Charters of Freedom. 2009-10-10. http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitutionfoundingfathersnewjersey.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  a b c David E. Kyvig author Julian E. Zelizer (editor) (2004). "The American Congress: The Building of Democracy". Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-17906-2. http://books.google.com/booksidMGEIIwT5pUC&printsecfrontcover&dqZelizer+Julian+2004+American+Congress+The+Building+of+Democracy&sourcebl&ots4V8JPn6c9n&sig2IIfzUmUDoNHVuOwI7v1Ithh0hw&hlen&eiWOCMTMLdHYP6lweYqp1i&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qZelizer%20Julian%202004%20American%20Congress%20The%20Building%20of%20Democracy&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "(17th amendment > direct election of senators by the public not by state government. "After the amendment passed however senators became much more sensitive to public opinion in their state." (page 362)"  By David B. Rivkin Jr. and Lee A. Casey (August 22 2009). "Illegal Health Reform". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/21/AR2009082103033.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  Founding Fathers via FindLaw (1787). "U.S. Constitution: Article I (section 8 paragraph 3) -- Article Text -- Annotations". FindLaw. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data/constitution/article01/. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  English (2003) p. 7 John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/foreword.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The framers of our Constitution created a strong federal government resting on the concept of separation of powers."  English (2003) p. 8 "The Convention Timeline". U.S. Constitution Online. 2009-10-10. http://www.usconstitution.net/consttime2.html. Retrieved 2009-10-10.  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/foreword.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives."  a b c Eric Patashnik author Julian E. Zelizer (editor) (2004). "The American Congress: The Building of Democracy". Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-17906-2. http://books.google.com/booksidMGEIIwT5pUC&printsecfrontcover&dqZelizer+Julian+2004+American+Congress+The+Building+of+Democracy&sourcebl&ots4V8JPn6c9n&sig2IIfzUmUDoNHVuOwI7v1Ithh0hw&hlen&eiWOCMTMLdHYP6lweYqp1i&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qZelizer%20Julian%202004%20American%20Congress%20The%20Building%20of%20Democracy&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11.  Margaret S. Thompson The "Spider Web": Congress and Lobbying in the Age of Grant (1985) Elisabeth S. Clemens The Peoples Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest-Group Politics in the United States 18901925 (1997) David B. Rivkin Jr. and Lee A. Casey (August 22 2009). "Illegal Health Reform". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/21/AR2009082103033.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... Direct election of senators (1913 - 17th Amendment) reduced the difference between the House and the Senate in terms of their link to the electorate ... (see page 38)"  David E. Kyvig author Julian E. Zelizer (editor) (2004). "The American Congress: The Building of Democracy". Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-17906-2. http://books.google.com/booksidMGEIIwT5pUC&printsecfrontcover&dqZelizer+Julian+2004+American+Congress+The+Building+of+Democracy&sourcebl&ots4V8JPn6c9n&sig2IIfzUmUDoNHVuOwI7v1Ithh0hw&hlen&eiWOCMTMLdHYP6lweYqp1i&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qZelizer%20Julian%202004%20American%20Congress%20The%20Building%20of%20Democracy&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... defeated or retiring members would exercise power under circumstances encouraging them to pursue personal advantage. These "lame-duck" congressmen would be beyond the voters' reach ..."  "THE CONGRESS: 72nd Made". TIME. November 17 1930. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917174069200.html. Retrieved 5 October 2010.  a b English (2003) p. 14 "THE CONGRESS: Democratic Senate". Time. November 14 1932. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917184706500.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  "POLITICAL NOTES: Democratic Drift". Time. November 16 1936. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917175687900.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  a b "THE CONGRESS: The 76th". Time. November 21 1938. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917176030100.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  "THE VICE PRESIDENCY: Undeclared War". Time. March 20 1939. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171789486-200.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  "CONGRESS: New Houses". Time. November 11 1940. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917184931800.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  "Before the G.O.P. Lay a Forked Road". Time. November 16 1942. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917193282800.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  "Business & Finance: Turn of the Tide". Time. November 16 1942. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917193290000.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  a b "The Congress: Effort toward Efficiency". Time Magazine. May 21 1965. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917190168500.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Like the weather the ponderous machinery of the U.S. Congress ... cut the number of standing congressional committees from 81 to 34 and required Capitol Hill lobbyists to register."  "National Affairs: JUDGMENTS & PROPHECIES". Time. November 15 1954. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171820388-200.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  "THE CONGRESS: Ahead of the Wind". Time. November 17 1958. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917181063500.html. Retrieved 10 October 2010.  Bruce J. Schulman (author) Julian E. Zelizer (editor) (2004). "The American Congress: The Building of Democracy". Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-17906-2. http://books.google.com/booksidMGEIIwT5pUC&printsecfrontcover&dqZelizer+Julian+2004+American+Congress+The+Building+of+Democracy&sourcebl&ots4V8JPn6c9n&sig2IIfzUmUDoNHVuOwI7v1Ithh0hw&hlen&eiWOCMTMLdHYP6lweYqp1i&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qZelizer%20Julian%202004%20American%20Congress%20The%20Building%20of%20Democracy&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Watergate substantially reshaped the relationships among Congress the executive and the courts. ... congressional oversight of federal intelligence agencies the War Powers resolution campaign finance reform and independent counsel investigations of malfeasance in the executive branch. (page 638)"  "THE HOUSE: New Faces and New Strains". Time. November 18 1974. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917194510100.html.  a b c d Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971 ... created the Federal Election Commission (FEC) and established limits and disclosure requirements for contributions to congressional campaigns. .. Because PACs may contribute more than individuals there is a strong incentive to create PACs... (see page 58)"  Nick Anderson (March 30 2004). "Political Attack Ads Already Popping Up on the Web". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2004/mar/30/nation/na-online30. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  a b Susan Tifft Richard Homik Hays Corey (August 20 1984). "Taking an Ax to the PACs". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917195433500.html. Retrieved 2009-10-02.  a b ADAM CLYMER (October 29 1992). "Campaign spending in congress races soars to new high". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/29/us/campaign-spending-in-congress-races-soars-to-new-high.html. Retrieved 2009-10-02.  a b c Jeffrey H. Birnbaum (October 3 2004). "Cost of Congressional Campaigns Skyrockets". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A2935-2004Oct2.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  a b Richard E. Cohen (August 12 1990). "PAC Paranoia: Congress Faces Campaign Spending - Politics: Hysteria was the operative word when legislators realized they could not return home without tougher campaign finance laws.". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1990-08-12/opinion/op-7391campaign-finance-laws. Retrieved 2009-10-02.  Walter Isaacson Evan Thomas other bureaus (October 25 1982). "Running with the PACs". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171953584-200.html. 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ISBN 0-618-17906-2. http://books.google.com/booksidMGEIIwT5pUC&printsecfrontcover&dqZelizer+Julian+2004+American+Congress+The+Building+of+Democracy&sourcebl&ots4V8JPn6c9n&sig2IIfzUmUDoNHVuOwI7v1Ithh0hw&hlen&eiWOCMTMLdHYP6lweYqp1i&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qZelizer%20Julian%202004%20American%20Congress%20The%20Building%20of%20Democracy&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The media became increasingly important in the work of Congress in the late twentieth century ... more actors participated more actions took place in a public arena more roads opened up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions ..."  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "In the era of television journalism of thirty-second ads and negative advertising a defensive deference to ordinary knowledge has probably become more important -- quote by scholar and congressman David Price. (see page 12)"  a b Davidson (2006) p. 18 "Congress and the Dollar". New York Sun. May 30 2008. http://www.nysun.com/editorials/congress-and-the-dollar/78978/. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "...Article One Section Eight of the Constitution. ... Congress the power to among other things "coin money regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin and fix the standard of weights and measures.""  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/congress.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "...both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative functions and powers with certain exceptions. For example the Constitution provides that only the House of Representatives may originate revenue bills. By tradition the House also originates appropriation bills. ..."  Kate Zernike (September 28 2006). "Senate Passes Detainee Bill Sought by Bush". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/28/washington/29detaincnd.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The Senate approved legislation this evening governing the interrogation and trials of terror suspects establishing far-reaching new rules in the definition of who may be held and how they should be treated. ... The legislation sets up rules for the military commissions ..."  "References about Congressional war declaring power".  Dana D. Nelson (October 11 2008). "The 'unitary executive' question". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-nelson11-2008oct110224216.story. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Steve Holland (May 1 2009). "Obama revelling in U.S. power unseen in decades". Reuters UK. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE5406CF20090501. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time. June 1 1970. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917187829000.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  a b c "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time. June 1 1970. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917187829000.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  "The President's News Conference of June 29 1950". Teachingamericanhistory.org. 1950-06-29. http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.aspdocument594. Retrieved 2010-12-20.  Michael Kinsley (March 15 1993). "The Case for a Big Power Swap". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917197799000.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  "Time Essay: Where's Congress". Time. May 22 1972. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171879072-100.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time. June 1 1970. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917187829000.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Did Richard Nixon "usurp" the constitutional powers of Congress when he unilaterally ordered troops into Cambodia..."  "The proceedings of congress.; senate.". The New York Times. June 28 1862. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.htmlresFA0C12FC345B1B7493CAAB178DD85F468684F9. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The war powers of Congress are clearly derived from the Constitution and Congress has a perfect right to exercise war powers. ... He contended at length that confiscation and liberation were among the war powers of Congress ..."  David S. Broder (March 18 2007). "Congress's Oversight Offensive". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/16/AR2007031601989.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "A Congress under firm Republican control was somnolent when it came to oversight of the executive branch."  Thomas Ferraro (April 25 2007). "House committee subpoenas Rice on Iraq". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2518728220070425. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Democratic lawmakers on Wednesday subpoenaed Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice ..."  James Gerstenzang (July 16 2008). "Bush claims executive privilege in Valerie Plame Wilson case". Los Angeles Times. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/presidentbush/2008/07/cheney-plame-ag.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Elizabeth B. Bazan and Jennifer K. Elsea legislative attorneys (January 5 2006). "Presidential Authority to Conduct Warrantless Electronic Surveillance to Gather Foreign Intelligence Information". Congressional Research Service. http://www.google.com/urlsat&sourceweb&ctres&cd12&urlhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fnation%2Fspecials%2Fangler%2Fcrsreview-2006.pdf&eiXVTBSryLI5intgfHvcjlBA&usgAFQjCNGRMQX1N7KS0-1UFXJfkOobAykVg&sig2JQdMZxKM8cJpvb-APtJB6w. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Linda P. Campbell and Glen Elsasser (October 20 1991). "Supreme Court Slugfests A Tradition". Chicago Tribune. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1991-10-20/news/91040406351senate-judiciary-committee-first-high-court-nominee-confirmation/2. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... "It's entirely in Congress' determination what the limitations of the impeachment clause may be" said John Killian..."  Eric Cantor (July 30 2009). "Obama's 32 Czars". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/29/AR2009072902624.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Christopher Lee (January 2 2006). "Alito Once Made Case For Presidential Power". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/01/AR2006010100788.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Dan Froomkin (March 10 2009). "Playing by the Rules". Washington Post. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/white-house-watch/bush-rollback/playing-by-the-rules.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Dana D. Nelson (October 11 2008). "The 'unitary executive' question". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-nelson11-2008oct110224216.story. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Charlie Savage (March 16 2009). "Obama Undercuts Whistle-Blowers Senator Says". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/17/us/politics/17signing.html. Retrieved 2009-10-04.  Binyamin Appelbaum and David Cho (March 24 2009). "U.S. Seeks Expanded Power to Seize Firms Goal Is to Limit Risk to Broader Economy". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/23/AR2009032302830.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  George F. Will -- op-ed columnist (December 21 2008). "Making Congress Moot". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/19/AR2008121902929.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Davidson (2006) p. 19 J. Leslie Kincaid (January 17 1916). "TO MAKE THE MILITIA A NATIONAL FORCE.; The Power of Congress Under the Constitution "for Organizing Arming and Disciplining" the State Troops.". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.htmlresF40C14FB355C13738DDDAE0994D9405B868DF1D3. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "...the militia is essentially a State force. ... it has resulted from the failure of Congress adequately to provide for the militia as a national force."  Stephen Herrington (February 25 2010). "Red State Anxiety and The Constitution". Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/stephen-herrington/red-state-anxiety-and-theb476050.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The Tenth states "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the States are reserved to the States respectively or to the people." ... Implied powers are derived from the general welfare and necessary and proper clauses."  "Timeline". CBS News. 2010. http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/supremecourtinteractive/framesourcetimeline.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "McCulloch v. Maryland states that the Constitution grants implied powers to Congress enabling it to carry out explicitly defined powers. The decision vastly augments Congress' power to make laws."  Randy E. Barnett (April 23 2009). "The Case for a Federalism Amendment". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124044199838345461.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Finally Section 5 authorizes judges to keep Congress within its limits by examining laws restricting the rightful exercise of liberty to ensure that they are a necessary and proper means to implement an enumerated power. ..."  "The very structure of the Constitution gives us profound insights about what the founders thought was important... the Founders thought that the Legislative Branch was going to be the great branch of government." Hon. John Charles Thomas 1 a b Greene Richard (2005-01-19). "Kings in the White House". BBC News (BBC). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4181799.stm. Retrieved 2007-10-07.  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... Executive branch officials are hesitant to reveal certain information to members of Congress because they do not trust legislators to keep the information secret. For their part legislators cannot know what information is being withheld from Congress so secret government tends to breed distrust on Capitol Hill. (see pages 18-19)"  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... The fight against terrorism poses special challenges for members of Congress. ... The need for quick coordinated multi-agency action is intensified. Congress is not capable of effectively checking such executive action. .... (see page 19)"  Charles Wolfson (August 11 2010). "Clinton Presses Senate to Ratify Nuclear Arms Treaty with Russia". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544162-20013329-503544.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Washington's scorching temperatures did not prevent Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton today from turning up the heat on her former colleagues in the United States Senate...."  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/congress.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Under the 25th Amendment to the Constitution a vote in each House is required to confirm the President's nomination for Vice-President when there is a vacancy in that office."  "Constitutional Interpretation the Old Fashioned Way". Center For Individual Freedom. http://www.cfif.org/htdocs/legalissues/legalupdates/ussupremecourt/scalia-constitutional-speech.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-15.  "Decision of the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott Case". The New York Times. March 6. 1851. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0306.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "...the Missouri Compromise in so far as it undertook to exclude negro slavery ... was a Legislative act exceeding the powers of Congress and void and of no legal effect to that end. In deciding these main points the Supreme Court determined ..."  Frank Askin (July 21 2007). "Congress's Power To Compel". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/20/AR2007072001802.html. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  a b Ben's Guide to US Government (2010). "Congressional Hearings: About". GPO Access. http://www.gpoaccess.gov/chearings/about.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "A hearing is a meeting or session of a Senate House joint or special committee of Congress usually open to the public to obtain information and opinions on proposed legislation ..."  a b c United States government (2010). "Congressional Reports: Main Page". U.S. Government Printing Office. http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/index.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Congressional reports ... There are two types of reports House and Senate Reports and Senate Executive Reports...."  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/congress.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The Congress under the Constitution and by statute also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election unless by law they appoint a different day to count the electoral votes...."  a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q 111th Congress 2nd session (2010). "Tying It All Together: Learn about the Legislative Process". United States House of Representatives. http://www.house.gov/house/Tyingitall.shtml. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The chief function of Congress is the making of laws."  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/publication.html#usc. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The United States Code contains a consolidation and codification of the general and permanent laws of the United States arranged according to subject matter under 50 title headings largely in alphabetical order...."  English (2003) pp. 4647 English p. 46 Schiller Wendy J. (2000). Partners and Rivals: Representation in U.S. Senate Delegations. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691048878.  "Committees". U.S. Senate. 2010. http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/committees/dthreesectionswithteasers/committeeshome.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-12.  a b c Committee Types and Roles Congressional Research Service April 1 2003 http://www.loc.gov/about/generalinfo.html "The Congressional Research Service and the American Legislative Process". Congressional Research Service. 2008. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33471.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-25.  Sullivan Arthur; Steven M. Sheffrin (2003). Economics: Principles in action. Upper Saddle River New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 388. ISBN 0-13-063085-3. http://www.pearsonschool.com/index.cfmlocatorPSZ3R9&PMDbSiteId2781&PMDbSolutionId6724&PMDbCategoryId&PMDbProgramId12881&level4.  "Congressional Budget Office About CBO". Cbo.gov. http://www.cbo.gov/aboutcbo/. Retrieved 2010-12-20.  Washington Representatives (32 ed.). Bethesda MD: Columbia Books. November 2007. p. 949. ISBN 1-880873-55-9.  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "With an evenly divided electorate we have experienced a prolonged period of narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress in the last decade (see page 17)"  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... alternating control of Congress produces greater flexibility in party policy positions more pragmatic party strategies greater civility in political discourse and perhaps greater public support for the institution. (see page 18)"  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... By many accounts the Congress has been more partisan since the turn of the new century than it had been for a hundred years. (see page 18)"  a b John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/sourceofleg.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Sources of ideas for legislation are unlimited and proposed drafts of bills originate in many diverse quarters."  a b c John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/budget.process.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 as amended provides Congress with a procedure to establish appropriate spending and revenue levels for each year."  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/senate.action.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The rules of procedure in the Senate differ to a large extent from those in the House. The Senate relies heavily on the practice of obtaining unanimous consent for actions to be taken. ..."  Partnership for Public Service (March 29 2009). "Walter Oleszek: A Hill Staffer's Guide to Congressional History and Habit". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/27/AR2009032701563.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Congress is filled with experts on virtually every topic but when questions arise about Congress itself members and Capitol Hill staff turn to Walter Oleszek ..."  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/considbycomm.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "One of the first actions taken by a committee is to seek the input of the relevant departments and agencies about a bill. Frequently the bill is also submitted to the Government Accountability Office with a request for an official report..."  a b John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/considbycomm.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Standing committees are required to have regular meeting days at least once a month."  John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/considbycomm.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "If the bill is of sufficient importance the committee may set a date for public hearings."  a b "BLACKS: Confronting the President". Time Magazine. April 5 1971. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917187689200.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... he receives full congressional privileges including an office with a staff of 13 an annual salary of $42500..."  "News from Washington". The New York Times. December 3 1861. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.htmlresF30611FA38541A7493C1A91789D95F458684F9. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Congress assembled to-day and contrary to expectations more than a quorum was present in each House. From the Senate..."  a b c d John V. Sullivan (July 24 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/consideration.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "System of Lights and Bells -- Due to the diverse nature of daily tasks ...."  United States government (2010). "Recent Votes". United States Senate. http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/legislative/athreesectionswithteasers/votes.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Recent Votes Refreshed every 20 minutes."  "The U.S. Congress - Votes Database -- Members of Congress / Robert Byrd". Washington Post. 2010-06-17. http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/k000105/. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "6/17/10 Vote 193: On the Motion: Motion to Waive All Applicable Budgetary Discipline Re: Thune Amdt. No. 4376 As Modified; Of a perfecting nature. NO No Yes No..."  a b By Larry J. Sabato (September 26 2007). "An amendment is needed to fix the primary mess". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/printedition/news/20070926/opcomwednesday.art.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  a b c Joseph A. Califano Jr. (May 27 1988). "PAC's Remain a Pox". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/27/opinion/pac-s-remain-a-pox.html. Retrieved 2009-10-02.  Brian Kalish (5/19/2008). "GOP exits to cost party millions". USA TODAY. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-05-18-PACN.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  a b Susan Page (May 9 2006). "5 keys to who will control Congress: How immigration gas Medicare Iraq and scandal could affect midterm races". USA TODAY. http://www.usatoday.com/educate/college/polisci/articles/20060514.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Republicans have counted on financial advantage redrawn district lines and the power of parochial issues and constituent services..."  Macedo Stephen (August 11 2008). "Toward a more democratic Congress Our imperfect democratic constitution: the critics examined". Boston University Law Review (Boston University Law Review) 89: 609628. http://docs.google.com/gviewav&qcache%3AQ33mcnJC4pkJ%3Awww.bu.edu%2Flaw%2Fcentral%2Fjd%2Forganizations%2Fjournals%2Fbulr%2Fvolume89n2%2Fdocuments%2FMACEDO.pdf+%22our+undemocratic+constitution%22+critic%3F+review%3F&hlen&glus&pli1. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  a b c "Time Essay: Campaign Costs: Floor Not Ceiling". Time Magazine. May 17 1971. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917194435100.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  a b c Barbara Borst Associated Press (2006-10-29). "Campaign spending up in U.S. congressional elections". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2006-10-29-campaign-spendingx.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  a b Dan Froomkin (September 15 1997). "Campaign Finance -- Introduction". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/campfin/intro.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  a b Evan Thomas (April 4 2008). "At What Cost -- Sen. John Warner and Congress's money culture.". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/130441. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  "References about diffname".  Jean Merl (October 18 2000). "Gloves Come Off in Attack Ads by Harman Kuykendall". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2000/oct/18/local/me-38161. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  Shanto Iyengar -- Director Political Communications Lab Stanford University (August 12 2008). "Election 2008: The Advertising". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2008/08/10/DI2008081001615.html. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  Dave Lesher (September 12 1994). "COLUMN ONE - TV Blitz Fueled by a Fortune - Once obscure Huffington now is pressing Feinstein. His well-financed rapid-response team has mounted an unprecedented ad attack.". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1994-09-12/news/mn-377001tv-ads. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  Howard Kurtz (October 28 1998). "Democrats Chase Votes With a Safety Net". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/campaigns/keyraces98/stories/ads102898.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  James Oliphant (April 9 2008). "'08 Campaign costs nearing $2 Billion. Is it worth it". Los Angeles Times. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/washington/2008/04/campaignexpense.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  PR Newswire (May 19 2009). "Campaign Finance Groups Praise Rep. Welch for Cosponsoring Fair Elections Now Act". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS184834+19-May-2009+PRN20090519. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  John Balzar (May 24 2006). "Democrats Battle Over a Safe Seat in Congress". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2006/may/24/local/me-harman24. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  "The Congress: An Idea on the March". Time Magazine. Jan. 11 1963. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/09171873000-500.html. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  staff writer (October 25 1992). "Decision '92 - SPECIAL VOTERS' GUIDE TO STATE AND LOCAL ELECTIONS - THE CONGRESSIONAL RACES". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1992-10-25/news/ss-12791congressional-races. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  Howard Kurtz (January 6 2008). "CAMPAIGN ON TELEVISION People May Dislike Attack Ads but the Messages Tend to Stick". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/05/AR2008010502196.html. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  "References about prevalence of attack ads".  Lesley Clark (2008-10-18). "Attack ads knock out issues in Lincoln Diaz-Balart/Raul Martinez race -- The issues get short shrift in the blizzard of ads and mailers in the nationally watched race between U.S. Rep. Lincoln Diaz-Balart and Raul Martinez.". The Miami Herald. http://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics/florida/story/731011.html. Retrieved 2009-09-30. dead link Brooks Jackson and Justin Bank (February 5 2009). "Radio Radio -- New Democratic ads attacking House Republicans in the lead-up to the 2010 midterm elections don't tell the whole story.". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/183328. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  Fredreka Schouten (9/19/2008). "Union helps non-profit groups pay for attack ads". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-09-18-union-moneyN.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  Ruth Marcus (August 8 2007). "Attack Ads You'll Be Seeing". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/07/AR2007080701287.html. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  Chris Cillizza (September 20 2006). "Ads Ads Everywhere!". Washington Post. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/thefix/ohio-river-ramble/ads-ads-everywhere.html. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  SAMANTHA GROSS Associated Press (September 7 2007). "Coming Soon: Personalized Campaign Ads". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/07/AR2007090701573pf.html. Retrieved 2009-09-30.  a b Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... many members turned from wanting to claim credit for legislative accomplishments to avoiding blame for making unpopular choices. ... it changed lawmakers' basic approach to policy making. (see page 21)"  a b Alexander Hamilton or James Madison (February 8 1788). "US Constitutional Documents: The Federalist Paper No. 52". http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/TheFederalistPapers/No.52. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  "Congress Approval Rating at Lowest Point for Year". Reuters. September 2 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS95973+02-Sep-2009+BW20090902. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  "THE CONGRESS: Makings of the 72nd (Cont.)". Time Magazine. September 22 1930. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917174031300.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  Jonathan Peterson (October 21 1996). "Confident Clinton Lends Hand to Congress Candidates". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1996-10-21/news/mn-562291clinton-campaign. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  "References about diffname".  "THE CONGRESS: Makings of the 72nd (Cont.)". Time Magazine. September 22 1930. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0917174031300.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  Maki Becker (June 17 1994). "Informed Opinions on Today's Topics - Looking for Answers to Voter Apathy". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1994-06-17/local/me-51211motor-voter. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  Daniel Brumberg (October 30 2008). "America's Re-emerging Democracy". Washington Post. http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/postglobal/needtoknow/2008/10/americaourre-emergingdemocr.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  Karen Tumulty (July 8 1986). "Congress Must Now Make Own Painful Choices". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1986-07-08/news/mn-224961painful-choice. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  Janet Hook (December 22 1997). "As U.S. Economy Flows Voter Vitriol Ebbs". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1997/dec/22/news/mn-1214. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  a b c "Congress gets $4100 pay raise". Associated Press. USA Today. 1/9/2008. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-01-09-Raise-meN.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Gallup Poll/Newsweek (2009-10-08). "Congress and the Public: Congressional Job Approval Ratings Trend (1974-Present)". The Gallup Organization. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1600/Congress-Public.aspx. Retrieved 2009-10-08.  "References about low approval ratings".  "Congress' Approval Rating Jumps to 31%". Gallup. February 17 2009. http://www.gallup.com/poll/114670/Congress-Approval-Rating-Jumps.aspx. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  "Congress Approval Rating at Lowest Point for Year". Reuters. September 2 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS95973+02-Sep-2009+BW20090902. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  John Whitesides (2007-09-19). "Bush Congress at record low ratings: Reuters poll". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSN1844140220070919. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  Seung Min Kim (2/18/2009). "Poll: Congress' job approval at 31%". USA TODAY. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-02-17-congress-pollN.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  interview by David Schimke (SeptemberOctober 2008). "Presidential Power to the People -- Author Dana D. Nelson on why democracy demands that the next president be taken down a notch". Utne Reader. http://www.utne.com/2008-09-01/Politics/Presidential-Power-to-the-People.aspx. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  Guy Gugliotta (November 3 2004). "Politics In Voter Apathy Out Amid Heavy Turnout". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A20054-2004Nov2.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  "Voter Turnout Rate Said to Be Highest Since 1968". Associated Press. Washington Post. December 15 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/14/AR2008121402295.html. Retrieved 2009-10-01.  Julian E. Zelizer (editor) (2004). "The American Congress: The Building of Democracy". Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-17906-2. http://books.google.com/booksidMGEIIwT5pUC&printsecfrontcover&dqZelizer+Julian+2004+American+Congress+The+Building+of+Democracy&sourcebl&ots4V8JPn6c9n&sig2IIfzUmUDoNHVuOwI7v1Ithh0hw&hlen&eiWOCMTMLdHYP6lweYqp1i&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&qZelizer%20Julian%202004%20American%20Congress%20The%20Building%20of%20Democracy&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "The size messiness virtues and vices ... page xiv xv"  a b "Roger Sherman and The Connecticut Compromise". Connecticut Judicial Branch: Law Libraries. 2010-01-10. http://www.jud.ct.gov/lawlib/History/Sherman.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-10. "...The compromise provided for representation in the House of Representatives according to population and in the Senate by equal numbers for each state."  Cass R. Sunstein (October 26 2006). "It Could Be Worse". The New Republic Online. http://www.powells.com/review/20061026.html. Retrieved 2010-01-10. "Under the Constitution every state regardless of population receives two senators for a period of six years. This is a conspicuous violation of the rule of "one person one vote." Wyoming with about 500000 people has the same number of senators as California with about 35 million people."  Reviewed by Robert Justin Lipkin (January 2007). "OUR UNDEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION: WHERE THE CONSTITUTION GOES WRONG (AND HOW WE THE PEOPLE CAN CORRECT IT)". Widener University School of Law. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/gvpt/lpbr/subpages/reviews/levinson0107.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  Sanford Levinson (2006). "Our Undemocratic Constitution". Google Books. http://books.google.com/booksidZHQ8z2MAZToC&dq%22sanford+levinson%22+review%3F+%22Our+undemocratic+constitution%22&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiFvxJS875Hs2ylAf6iZ0Y&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CBgQ6AEwAw#vsnippet&qsmall%20states&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-01-10. "Over the period of 19631999 New York taxpayers paid out $252 billion more in taxes than were received back in federal payments or services. Other major outpayers were California Illinois and New Jersey... (page 60)"  Richard Labunski interviewed by Policy Today's Dan Schwartz (18 October 2007). "Time for a Second Constitutional Convention". Policy Today. http://www.policytoday.com/index.phpoptioncomcontent&taskview&id258&Itemid148. Retrieved 2009-09-20.  Charles L. Clapp The Congressman His Work as He Sees It (Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution 1963) p. 55; cf. pp. 50-55 64-66 75-84. Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report 35 (September 3 1977): 1855. English op. cit. pp. 48-49 notes that members will also regularly appear at local events in their home district and will maintain offices in the home congressional district or state. Robert Preer (August 15 2010). "Two Democrats in Senate race stress constituent services". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2010/08/15/quincydemocratskeenanandtobinstressserviceinraceforstatesenate/rssidBoston.com+--+Massachusetts+news. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "In the Democratic race ... two veteran Quincy politicians are touting their ability to connect with constituents and deliver services."  Daniel Malloy (August 22 2010). "Incumbents battle association with stimulus Obama". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/10234/1081868-176.stm. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "Mr. Altmire said constituent services are a linchpin of what he provides..."  Amy Gardner (November 27 2008). "Wolf's Decisive Win Surprised Even the GOP". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/24/AR2008112403399.html. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "And he runs an efficient constituent services operation with a personal touch..."  a b c William T. Blanco Editor (2000). "Congress on display Congress at work". University of Michigan. ISBN 0-472-08711-8. http://books.google.com/booksidITudab2zDcC&printsecfrontcover&dqCongress+on+Display+Congress+at+Work&sourcebl&otsbRcZF2HpeE&sigpdTcGwEufVf53xjxOgWGEONOXY&hlen&eiVC-MTJPsOISClAfo-Lhg&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum1&ved0CBIQ6AEwAA#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. "... the term home style has become shorthand ... to describe the complex intertwined relationship between legislators and their constituents."  Davidson (2006) p. 17 English (2003) pp. 2425 Simpson G. R. (October 22 1992). "Surprise! Top Frankers Also Have the Stiffest Challenges". Roll Call.  Steven S. Smith Jason M. Roberts Ryan J. Vander Wielen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourth Edition)". Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/booksidfWpEHxuxVEC&dqSmith+Steven+S.+Jason+M.+Roberts+and+Ryan+Vander+Wielen+%282007%29.+The+American+Congress&printsecfrontcover&sourcebn&hlen&eiVbqMTOePCISdlgfyrIVi&saX&oibookresult&ctresult&resnum4&ved0CCAQ6AEwAw#vonepage&q&ffalse. Retrieved 2010-09-11. ".. incumbents' franking privilege and funding for mass mailings give them an important edge over the competition ... (see page 79)"  Senate Salaries since 1789. United States Senate. Retrieved on 2007-08-13. a b Salaries of Members of Congress (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. Salaries of Legislative Executive and Judicial Officials (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. "US Census Bureau news release in regards to median income". Archived from the original on 2010-01-17. http://www.webcitation.org/5mr1MPjxJ. Retrieved 2007-08-28.  "A Quiet Raise -- Congressional Pay -- special report". Washington Post. 1999-03-18. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/pay/pay.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-28.  Scott Walter (25 April 2010). "Personality Parade column:Q. Does Congress pay for its own health care". New York NY: Parade. p. 2.  Retirement Benefits for Members of Congressdead link (PDF). Congressional Research Service February 9 2007. a b Brody Mullins and T.W. Farnam (December 17 2009). "Congress Travels More Public Pays: Lawmakers Ramp Up Taxpayer-Financed Journeys; Five Days in Scotland". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB126092430041092995.htmlmodrsscommostcommentart. Retrieved 2009-12-17. "The tour provides a glimpse of the mixture of business and pleasure involved in legislators' overseas trips... mostly financed by the taxpayer. ..."  References Bacon Donald C.; Davidson Roger H.; Keller Morton editors (1995). Encyclopedia of the United States Congress. Simon & Schuster.  Collier Christopher and Collier James Lincoln (1986). Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of 1787. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0394523466.  Davidson Roger H. and Walter J. Oleszek (2006). Congress and Its Members (10th ed.). Congressional Quarterly (CQ) Press. ISBN 0871873257.  (Legislative procedure informal practices and other information) English Ross M. (2003). The United States Congress. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719063094.  Herrnson Paul S. (2004). Congressional Elections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington. CQ Press. ISBN 1568028261.  Oleszek Walter J. (2004). Congressional Procedures and the Policy Process. CQ Press. ISBN 0871874776.  Polsby Nelson W. (2004). How Congress Evolves: Social Bases of Institutional Change. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195161955.  Price David E. (2000). The Congressional Experience. Westview Press. ISBN 0813311578.  Struble Robert Jr. (2007). chapter seven Treatise on Twelve Lights. TeLL.  Zelizer Julian E. (2004). The American Congress: The Building of Democracy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0618179062.  Further reading Baker Ross K. (2000). House and Senate 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton. (Procedural historical and other information about both houses) Barone Michael and Richard E. Cohen. The Almanac of American Politics 2006 (2005) elaborate detail on every district and member; 1920 pages Berg-Andersson Richard E. (2001). Explanation of the types of Sessions of Congress (Term of Congress) Berman Daniel M. (1964). In Congress Assembled: The Legislative Process in the National Government. London: The Macmillan Company. (Legislative procedure) Bianco William T. (2000) Congress on Display Congress at Work University of Michigan Press. Hamilton Lee H. (2004) How Congress Works and Why You Should Care Indiana University Press. Herrick Rebekah (2001). "Gender effects on job satisfaction in the House of Representatives". Women and Politics 23 (4): 8598. doi:10.1300/J014v23n0404.  Hunt Richard (1998). "Using the Records of Congress in the Classroom". OAH Magazine of History 12 (Summer): 3437.  Imbornoni Ann-Marie David Johnson and Elissa Haney. (2005). "Famous Firsts by American Women." Infoplease. Lee Frances and Bruce Oppenheimer. (1999). Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation. University of Chicago Press: Chicago. (Equal representation in the Senate) Rimmerman Craig A. (1990). "Teaching Legislative Politics and Policy Making." Political Science Teacher 3 (Winter): 1618. Ritchie Donald A. (2010). The U.S. Congress: A Very Short Introduction. (History representation and legislative procedure) Smith Steven S. Jason M. Roberts and Ryan Vander Wielen (2007). The American Congress (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052119704X.  (Legislative procedure informal practices and other information) Story Joseph. (1891). Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States. (2 vols). Boston: Brown & Little. (History constitution and general legislative procedure) Tarr David R. and Ann O'Connor. Congress A to Z (CQ Congressional Quarterly) (4th 2003) 605pp Wilson Woodrow. (1885). Congressional Government. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Some information in this article has been provided by the Senate Historical Office. External links Listen to this article (info/dl) This audio file was created from a revision of United States Congress dated 2006-08-04 and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articles Media related to United States Congress at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to United States Congress at Wikiquote U.S. House of Representatives U.S. Senate Women in Congress Office of the Clerk U.S. House of Representatives Black Americans in Congress Office of the Clerk U.S. House of Representatives Congress and Legislation from UCB Libraries GovPubs How Laws Are Made via U.S. Government Printing Office Selected Congressional Research Service Reports on Congress and Its Procedures via Law Librarians' Society of Washington D.C. Sessions of Congress with Corresponding Debate Record Volume Numbers via Law Librarians' Society of Washington D.C. 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