This article is about the country. For other uses see Wales (disambiguation). Wales Cymru Flag Motto: Cymru am byth (English: Wales forever) Anthem: Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau (English: Land of my fathers) Location of  Wales  (orange)  in the European continent  (camel & white)  in the United Kingdom  (camel) Capital (and largest city) Cardiff (Caerdydd) 5129N 311W / 51.483N 3.183W / 51.483; -3.183 Official languages Welsh English Demonym Welsh (Cymry) Government Devolved Government in a Constitutional monarchy  -  Monarch Elizabeth II  -  First Minister (Head of Welsh Government) Carwyn Jones AM  -  Prime Minister of the United Kingdom David Cameron MP  -  Secretary of State (in the UK government) Cheryl Gillan MP Legislature UK Parliament National Assembly for Wales Unification  -  by Gruffydd ap Llywelyn1 1057  Area  -  Total 20779 km2  8022 sq mi  Population  -  2009 estimate 29993002   -  2001 census 2903085   -  Density 140/km2  361/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2006 (for national statistics) estimate  -  Total US$85.4 billion   -  Per capita US$30546  Currency Pound sterling (GBP) Time zone GMT (UTC0)  -  Summer (DST) BST (UTC+1) Date formats d/m/yy (AD) Drives on the left ISO 3166 code GB Internet TLD .uk3 Calling code 44 Patron saint Saint David Dewi

Wales (/welz/ ( listen) Welsh: Cymru;4 pronounced kmr ( listen)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain5 bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million and a total area of 20779 km (8023 sq mi). Wales has over 1200 km (746 mi) of coastline including its offshore islands; the largest Anglesey (Ynys Mn) is also the largest island in the Irish Sea. Generally mountainous its highest mountains are in the north and central areas especially in Snowdonia (Eryri) which contains Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa) its highest peak.

During the Iron Age and early medieval period Wales was inhabited by the Celtic Britons. A distinct Welsh national identity emerged in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations today. Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was recognised as king of Wales in 1057. Llywelyn ap Gruffydd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of Wales. The castles and town walls erected to ensure its permanence are now UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Owain Glyndr briefly restored independence to what was to become modern Wales in the early 15th century. Wales was subsequently annexed by England under the Laws in Wales Acts 15351542 since when excluding those matters now devolved to Wales English law has been the legal system of Wales and England. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (The Welsh Language Society) in 1962. The National Assembly for Wales created in 1999 following a referendum holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters.

Wales lies within the north temperate zone its changeable maritime climate making it one of the wettest countries in Europe. It was an agricultural society for most of its early history the country's terrain making arable farming secondary to pastoral farming the primary source of Wales' wealth. In the 18th century the introduction of the slate and metallurgical industries at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution began to transform the country into an industrial nation; the UNESCO World Heritage Sites Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and the Blaenavon Industrial Landscape date from that period. The south Wales coalfield's exploitation in the Victorian era caused a rapid expansion of the Welsh population. Two-thirds of Wales' three million population live in south Wales mainly in and around the cities of Cardiff (Caerdydd) Swansea (Abertawe) and Newport (Casnewydd) and in the nearby valleys. Another concentration live in eastern north Wales. Cardiff Wales' capital is the country's most populous city with 317500 residents and for a period was the biggest coal port in the world. Today with the country's traditional heavy industries (coal steel copper tinplate and slate) either gone or in decline Wales' economy depends on the public sector light and service industries and tourism.

Although Wales shares a close political and social history with the rest of Great Britain it has retained a distinct cultural identity. Wales is officially bilingual the Welsh and English languages having equal status. The Welsh language is an important element of Welsh culture and its use is supported by national policy. Over 580000 Welsh speakers live in Wales more than 20% of the population. From the late 19th century onwards Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song" attributable in part to the revival of the eisteddfod tradition. At international sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games Wales is represented by national teams regulated and organised by over fifty national governing bodies of sports in Wales. At the Olympic Games Welsh athletes compete as part of a Great Britain team. Although football has traditionally been the more popular sport in north Wales rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. Contents 1 Etymology 1.1 Etymology of Wales 1.2 Etymology of Cymru 2 History 2.1 Prehistoric origins 2.2 Roman era 2.3 Post-Roman era 2.4 Medieval Wales 2.5 Industrial Wales 2.6 Modern Wales 3 Government and politics 3.1 Local government 4 Law and order 5 Geography and natural history 5.1 Geology 5.2 Climate 5.3 Flora and fauna 6 Education 7 Economy 8 Healthcare 9 Demographics 9.1 Languages 9.2 Religion 10 Culture 10.1 Mythology 10.2 Visual arts 10.3 Literature in Wales 10.4 Sport 10.5 Media 10.6 Cuisine 10.7 Performing arts 10.7.1 Music 10.7.2 Drama 10.7.3 Dance 10.8 Museums and libraries 10.9 Festivals 11 Transport 12 National symbols 13 See also 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 External links Etymology See also: List of meanings of countries' names Etymology of Wales

The Anglo-Saxon word for 'foreign' or 'foreigner' was Waelisc and a 'foreign(er's) land' was called Walas. The modern English forms of these words with respect to the modern country are Welsh (the people) and Wales (the land) respectively.

Historically in Britain the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used indiscriminately to refer to anything that the Anglo-Saxons associated with Celtic Britons including other foreign lands (e.g. Cornwall) places once associated with Celtic Britons (e.g. Walworth in County Durham and Walton in West Yorkshire)6 the surnames of people (e.g. Walsh and Wallace) and various other things that were once new and foreign to the Anglo-Saxons (e.g. the walnut). None of these historic usages is necessarily connected to Wales or the Welsh.

The Anglo-Saxon words are derived from the same Germanic root (singular Walh plural Walha) that has provided modern names for Continental lands (e.g. Wallonia and Wallachia)7 and peoples (e.g. the Vlachs via a borrowing into Old Church Slavonic)8910 none of which has any connection to Wales or the Welsh. Etymology of Cymru Wikisource has original text related to this article: Moliant Cadwallon

The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry and Cymru is Welsh for "Land of the Cymry". The etymological origin of Cymry is from the Brythonic word combrogi meaning "fellow-countrymen".11 The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the post-Roman Era relationship of the Welsh with the Brythonic-speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland the peoples of Yr Hen Ogledd (English: The Old North). In its original use it amounted to a self-perception that the Welsh and the "Men of the North" were one people exclusive of all others.12 In particular the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples who are of similar heritage culture and language to both the Welsh and the Men of the North. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century.13 It is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan (Moliant Cadwallon by Afan Ferddig) c. 633.14 In Welsh literature the word Cymry was used throughout the Middle Ages to describe the Welsh though the older more generic term Brythoniaid continued to be used to describe any of the Britonnic peoples (including the Welsh) and was the more common literary term until c. 1100. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh. Until c. 1560 Cymry was used indiscriminately to mean either the people (Cymry) or their homeland (Cymru).11

The Latinised form of the name is Cambria. Outside of Wales this form survives as the name of Cumbria in North West England which was once a part of Yr Hen Ogledd. This form also appears at times in literary references perhaps most notably in the pseudohistorical Historia Regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth where the character of Camber is described as the eponymous King of Cymru. History Main article: History of Wales Prehistoric origins See also: Prehistoric Wales Bryn Celli Ddu a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey Wales has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years.15 Continuous human habitation dates from the end of the last ice age between 12000 and 10000 years before present (BP) when Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from central Europe began to migrate to Great Britain. At that time sea levels were much lower than today and the shallower parts of what is now the North Sea were dry land. The east coast of present day England and the coasts of present day Denmark Germany and the Netherlands were connected by the former landmass known as Doggerland forming the British Peninsula on the European mainland. Wales was free of glaciers by about 10250 BP the warmer climate allowing the area to become heavily wooded. The post-glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland forming the Irish Sea. Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea and by 8000 BP the British Peninsula had become an island.1617 By the beginning of the Neolithic (c. 6000 BP) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 feet (10 m) lower than today.181920 John Davies has theorised that the story of Cantre'r Gwaelod's drowning and tales in the Mabinogion of the waters between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower may be distant folk memories of this time.21 Neolithic colonists integrated with the indigenous people gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering to become settled farmers about 6000 BP the Neolithic Revolution.2122 They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production and built cromlechs such as Pentre Ifan Bryn Celli Ddu and Parc Cwm long cairn between about 5500 BP and 5800 BP.23242526 In common with people living all over Great Britain over the following centuries the people living in what was to become known as Wales assimilated immigrants and exchanged ideas of the Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic cultures. According to John T. Koch and others Wales in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-networked culture that also included the other Celtic nations England France Spain and Portugal where Celtic languages developed.2728293031 By the time of the Roman invasion of Britain the area of modern Wales had been divided among the tribes of the Deceangli Ordovices Cornovii Demetae and Silures for centuries.21 Roman era Main article: Wales in the Roman era The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete. Roman rule lasted over 300 years. The campaigns of conquest are the most widely known feature of Wales during the Roman era due to the spirited but ultimately unsuccessful defence of their homelands by two native tribes: the Silures; and the Ordovices. Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation save for the southern coastal region of South Wales east of the Gower Peninsula where there is a legacy of Romanisation.32 The only town in Wales founded by the Romans Caerwent is in South Wales. Both Caerwent and Carmarthen also in southern Wales became Roman civitates.33 Wales had a rich mineral wealth. The Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold copper and lead as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and silver.34 Roman economic development was concentrated in south-eastern Britain and no significant industries located in Wales.34 This was largely a matter of circumstance as Wales had none of the necessary materials in suitable combination and the forested mountainous countryside was not amenable to industrialisation. Although Latin became the official language of Wales the people tended to continue to speak in Brythonic. While Romanisation was far from complete the upper classes of Wales began to consider themselves Roman particularly after the ruling of 212 that granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Empire.35 Further Roman influence came through the spread of Christianity which gained many followers after Christians were allowed to worship freely in 313.35 Coin of Magnus Maximus Early historians including the 6th century cleric Gildas have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history36 as it is stated in literature as the foundation point of several medieval royal dynasties. In that year the Roman general Magnus Maximus or Macsen Wledig stripped all of western and northern Britain of troops and senior administrators to launch a successful bid for imperial power; continuing to rule Britain from Gaul as Emperor.3738 Gildas writing in about 540 says that Maximus left Britain not only with all of its Roman troops but also with all of its armed bands governors and the flower of its youth never to return. Having left with the troops and Roman administrators and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus the role of founding father for several royal dynasties including those of Powys and Gwent.3940 It was this transfer of power that has given rise to the belief that he was the father of the Welsh Nation.36 He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales.41 Post-Roman era See also: Sub-Roman Britain The 400 years following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales.35 After the Roman departure from Britain in 410 much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south-east were overrun by various Germanic tribes.42 However by 500 AD the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon rule.35 The kingdoms of Gwynedd Powys Dyfed and Seisyllg Morgannwg and Gwent emerged as independent Welsh successor states.35 Archaeological evidence in the Low Countries and what was to become England shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 to 550 which concurs with Frankish chronicles.43 John Davies notes this as consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill attributed to Arthur by Nennius.43 This tenacious survival by the Romano-Britons and their descendants in the western kingdoms was to become the foundation of what we now know as Wales. With the loss of the lowlands England's kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria and later Wessex wrestled with Powys Gwent and Gwynedd to define the frontier between the two peoples. Having lost much of what is now the West Midlands to Mercia in the 6th and early 7th centuries a resurgent late-seventh-century Powys checked Mercian advancement. Aethelbald of Mercia looking to defend recently acquired lands had built Wat's Dyke. According to John Davies this endeavour may have been with Powys king Elisedd ap Gwylog's own agreement however for this boundary extending north from the valley of the River Severn to the Dee estuary gave Oswestry to Powys.44 Another theory after carbon dating placed the dyke's existence 300 years earlier is that it may have been built by the post-Roman rulers of Wroxeter.45 King Offa of Mercia seems to have continued this consultative initiative when he created a larger earthwork now known as Offa's Dyke (Clawdd Offa). Davies wrote of Cyril Fox's study of Offa's Dyke: "In the planning of it there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. On the Long Mountain near Trelystan the dyke veers to the east leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh; near Rhiwabon it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden." And for Gwent Offa had the dyke built "on the eastern crest of the gorge clearly with the intention of recognizing that the River Wye and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent."44 However Fox's interpretations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have been questioned by more recent research.46 Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English though the Welsh would recover by the 12th century the area between the Dee (Afon Dyfrdwy) and the Conwy known then as Y Berfeddwlad. By the eighth century the eastern borders with the Anglo-Saxons had broadly been set. In 853 the Vikings raided Anglesey but in 856 Rhodri Mawr defeated and killed their leader Gorm.47 The Britons of Wales later made their peace with the Vikings and Anarawd ap Rhodri allied with the Norsemen occupying Northumbria to conquer the north.48 This alliance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agreement with Alfred king of Wessex with whom he fought against the west Welsh. According to Annales Cambriae in 894 "Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste Ceredigion and Ystrad Tywi."49 Medieval Wales North Wales Principalities 126776 See also: Norman invasion of Wales and Wales in the Late Middle Ages The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as Lloegyr (Modern Welsh Lloegr) which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole.50 The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called Saeson meaning "Saxons". The Anglo-Saxons called the Romano-British 'Walha' meaning 'Romanised foreigner' or 'stranger'.51 The Welsh continued to call themselves Brythoniaid (Brythons or Britons) well into the Middle Ages though the first written evidence of the use of Cymru and y Cymry is found in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan (Moliant Cadwallon by Afan Ferddig) c. 633.8 In Armes Prydain believed to be written around 930942 the words Cymry and Cymro are used as often as 15 times.52 However from the Anglo-Saxon settlement onwards the people gradually begin to adopt the name Cymry over Brythoniad.53 Dolwyddelan Castle built by Llywelyn ab Iorwerth in the early 13th century to watch over one of the valley routes into Gwynedd From 800 onwards a series of dynastic marriages led to Rhodri Mawr's (r. 84477) inheritance of Gwynedd and Powys. His sons in turn would found three principal dynasties (Aberffraw for Gwynedd Dinefwr for Deheubarth and Mathrafal for Powys). Rhodri's grandson Hywel Dda (r. 90050) founded Deheubarth out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of Dyfed and Seisyllwg in 930 ousted the Aberffraw dynasty from Gwynedd and Powys and then codified Welsh law in the 940s.54 Maredudd ab Owain (r. 98699) of Deheubarth (Hywel's grandson) would (again) temporarily oust the Aberffraw line from control of Gwynedd and Powys. Maredudd's great-grandson (through his daughter Princess Angharad) Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (r. 103963) would conquer his cousins' realms from his base in Powys and even extend his authority into England. Historian John Davies states that Gruffydd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus from about 1057 until his death in 1063 the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years Wales was one under one ruler a feat with neither precedent nor successor."1 Owain Gwynedd (110070) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title princeps Wallensium (prince of the Welsh) a title of substance given his victory on the Berwyn Mountains according to John Davies.55 Sculpture of Owain Glyndr (c. 1354 or 1359 c. 1416) at Cardiff City Hall Within four years of the Battle of Hastings England had been completely subjugated by the Normans.1 William I of England established a series of lordships allocated to his most powerful warriors along the Welsh border the boundaries fixed only to the east.56 This frontier region and any English-held lordships in Wales became known as Marchia Wallie the Welsh Marches in which the Marcher Lords were subject to neither English nor Welsh law.57 The area of the March varied as the fortunes of the Marcher Lords and the Welsh princes ebbed and flowed.58 The March of Wales which existed for over 450 years was abolished under the Acts of Union in 1536.57 Owain Gwynedd's grandson Llywelyn Fawr (the Great 11731240) wrested concessions out of the Magna Carta in 1215 and receiving the fealty of other Welsh lords in 1216 at the council at Aberdyfi became the first Prince of Wales.59 His grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffydd also secured the recognition of the title Prince of Wales from Henry III with the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267.60 Later however a succession of disputes including the imprisonment of Llywelyn's wife Eleanor daughter of Simon de Montfort culminated in the first invasion by King Edward I of England.61 As a result of military defeat the Treaty of Aberconwy exacted Llywelyn's fealty to England in 1277.61 Peace was short lived and with the 1282 Edwardian conquest the rule of the Welsh princes permanently ended. With Llywelyn's death and his brother prince Dafydd's execution the few remaining Welsh lords did homage for their lands to Edward I. Llywelyn's head was carried through London on a spear; his baby daughter Gwenllian was locked in the priory at Sempringham where she remained until her death 54 years later.62 Caernarfon Castle To help maintain his dominance Edward constructed a series of great stone castles. Beaumaris Caernarfon and Conwy. His son the future King Edward II of England was born at Edward's new castle at Caernarfon in 1284.63 He became the first English Prince of Wales not as an infant but in 1301. The apocryphal story that Edward tricked the Welsh by offering them a Welsh-born Prince who could speak no English was first recorded in 1584.64 The title also provided an income from the northwest part of Wales known as the Principality of Wales until the Act of Union (1536) after which the term principality if used at all was believed to be associated with the whole of Wales.656667 After the failed revolt in 129495 of Madog ap Llywelyn who styled himself Prince of Wales in the so-called Penmachno Document there was no major uprising until that led by Owain Glyndr a century later against Henry IV of England. In 1404 Owain was reputedly crowned Prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France Spain and Scotland.68 Glyndr went on to hold parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns including Machynlleth. The rebellion was ultimately to founder however and Owain went into hiding in 1412 with peace being essentially restored in Wales by 1415. Although the English conquest of Wales took place under the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan a formal Union did not occur until 153666 shortly after which Welsh law which continued to be used in Wales after the conquest was fully replaced by English law under what would become known as the Act of Union.69 Industrial Wales See also: Glamorgan and Lower Swansea valley Prior to the British Industrial Revolution which saw a rapid economic expansion between 1750 and 1850 there were signs of small-scale industries scattered throughout Wales.70 These ranged from industries connected to agriculture such as milling and the manufacture of woollen textiles through to mining and quarrying.70 Until the Industrial Revolution Wales had always been reliant on its agricultural output for its wealth and employment and the earliest industrial businesses were small scale and localised in manner.70 The emerging industrial period commenced around the development of copper smelting in the Swansea area. With access to local coal deposits and a harbour that could take advantage of Cornwall's copper mines and the copper deposits being extracted from the then largest copper mine in the world at Parys Mountain on Anglesey Swansea developed into the world's major centre for non-ferrous metal smelting in the 19th century.70 The second metal industry to expand in Wales was iron smelting and iron manufacturing became prevalent in both the north and the south of the country.71 In the north of Wales John Wilkinson's Ironworks at Bersham was a significant industry while in the south a second world centre of metallurgy was founded in Merthyr Tydfil where the four ironworks of Dowlais Cyfarthfa Plymouth and Penydarren became the most significant hub of iron manufacture in Wales.71 In the 1820s south Wales alone accounted for 40% of all pig iron manufactured in Britain.71 Dowlais Ironworks by George Childs (1840) In the late 18th century slate quarrying began to expand rapidly most notably in north Wales. The most notable site opened in 1770 by Richard Pennant is Penrhyn Quarry which by the late 19th century was employing 15000 men;72 and along with Dinorwic Quarry dominated the Welsh slate trade. Although slate quarrying has been described as 'the most Welsh of Welsh industries'73 it is coal mining which has become the single industry synonymous with Wales and its people. Initially coal seams were exploited to provide energy for local metal industries but with the opening of canal systems and later the railways Welsh coal mining saw a boom in its demand. As the south Wales coalfield was exploited mainly in the upland valleys around Aberdare and later the Rhondda the ports of Swansea Cardiff and later Penarth grew into world exporters of coal and with them came a population boom. By its height in 1913 Wales was producing almost 61 million tons of coal. As well as in South Wales there was also a significant coalfield in the north-east of the country particularly around Wrexham. 74 As Wales was reliant on the production of capital goods rather than consumer goods it possessed few of the skilled craftspeople and artisans found in the workshops of Birmingham or Sheffield in England and had few factories producing finished goods a key feature of most regions associated with the Industrial Revolution.71 However there is increasing support that the industrial revolution was reliant on harnessing the energy and materials provided by Wales and in that sense Wales was of central importance.71 Modern Wales Memorial to the men of the 38th (Welsh) Infantry Division who died at Mametz Wood France Historian Kenneth Morgan described Wales on the eve of the First World War as a "relatively placid self-confident and successful nation". Output from the coalfields continued to increase with the Rhondda Valley recording a peak of 9.6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913.75 The outbreak of the First World War (19141918) saw Wales as part of the United Kingdom enter hostilities with Germany. A total of 272924 Welshmen served in the war representing 21.5% of the male population.76 Of these roughly 35000 were killed.76 The two most notable battles of the War to include Welsh forces were those at Mametz Wood on the Somme and Third Ypres.77 The first quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in the political landscape of Wales. Since 1865 the Liberal Party had held a parliamentary majority in Wales and following the general election of 1906 only one non-Liberal Member of Parliament Keir Hardie of Merthyr Tydfil represented a Welsh constituency in Westminster.78 Yet by 1906 industrial dissension and political militancy had begun to undermine Liberal consensus in the Southern coalfields.78 In 1916 David Lloyd George became the first Welshman to become Prime Minister of Britain when he was made head of the 1916 coalition government.79 In December 1918 Lloyd George was re-elected at the head of a Conservative-dominated coalition government and his poor handling of the 1919 coalminers' strike was a key factor in destroying support for the Liberal party in south Wales.80 The industrial workers of Wales began shifting towards a new political organisation established by Hardie and others to ensure an elected representation for the working class and now called the Labour party.81 When in 1908 the Miners' Federation of Great Britain became affiliated to the Labour Party the four Labour candidates sponsored by miners were all elected as MPs.81 By 1922 half of the Welsh seats in Westminster were held by Labour politicians which was the beginning of a Labour hegemony which would dominate Wales into the 21st century.81 Despite economic growth in the first two decades of the 20th century from the early 1920s to the late 1930s Wales' staple industries endured a prolonged slump leading to widespread unemployment and poverty in the South Wales valleys.82 For the first time in centuries the population of Wales went into decline; the scourge of unemployment only relented with the production demands of the Second World War.83 The Second World War (19391945) saw Welsh servicemen and women fight in all the major theatres of war with some 15000 of them killed.84 Bombing raids brought major loss of life as the German Air Force targeted the docks at Swansea Cardiff and Pembroke.84 After 1943 10% of Welsh conscripts aged 18 were sent to work in the coal mines to rectify labour shortages; they became known as Bevin Boys.84 Pacifist numbers during both World Wars were fairly low especially in the Second World War which was seen as a fight against fascism.84 Of the political parties active in Wales only Plaid Cymru advocated a neutral stance on the grounds that it was an 'imperialist war'.84 Unofficial graffiti memorial to Capel Celyn Tryweryn (Remember Tryweryn) at Llanrhystud near Aberystwyth85 The 20th century saw a revival in Welsh national feeling. Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 seeking greater autonomy or independence from the rest of the UK.86 In 1955 the term England and Wales became common for describing the area to which English law applied and Cardiff was proclaimed as capital city of Wales. Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (The Welsh Language Society) was formed in 1962 in response to fears that the language may soon die out.87 Nationalist sentiment grew following the flooding of the Tryweryn valley in 1965 to create a reservoir supplying water to the English city of Liverpool.88 Despite 35 of the 36 Welsh Members of Parliament voting against the bill with the other abstaining Parliament still passed the bill and the village of Capel Celyn was submerged highlighting Wales' powerlessness in her own affairs in the face of the numerical superiority of English MPs in the Westminster Parliament.89 Both the Free Wales Army and Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru (Welsh Defence Movement abbreviated as MAC) were formed as a direct result of the Tryweryn destruction conducting campaigns from 1963.90 In the years leading up to the investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales in 1969 these groups were responsible for a number of bomb blastsdestroying water pipes tax and other offices and part of a dam being built for a new English-backed project in Clywedog Montgomeryshire.91 In 1966 the Carmarthen Parliamentary seat was won by Gwynfor Evans at a by-election Plaid Cymru's first Parliamentary seat.92 In the following year the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 was repealed and a legal definition of Wales and of the boundary with England was stated. By the end of the 1960s the regional policy of bringing firms into disadvantaged areas of Wales through financial incentives had proven very successful in diversifying the once industrial landscape.93 This policy begun in 1934 was enhanced by the construction of industrial estates and improving transport communications93 most notably the M4 motorway linking Wales directly to London. There was a belief that the foundations for stable economic growth had been firmly established in Wales during this period; but these views were shown to be wildly optimistic after the recession of the early 1980s saw much of the manufacturing base built over the last forty years collapse.94 The first referendum in 1979 in which the Welsh electorate voted on the creation of an assembly for Wales resulted in a large majority for the "no" vote.95 However in 1997 a referendum on the same issue secured a "yes" although by a very narrow majority.95 The National Assembly for Wales (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) was set up in 1999 (as a consequence of the Government of Wales Act 1998) and possesses the power to determine how the central government budget for Wales is spent and administered although the UK parliament reserves the right to set limits on the powers of the Welsh Assembly. The governments of the United Kingdom and of Wales almost invariably define Wales as a country.9697 The Welsh Assembly Government says: "Wales is not a Principality. Although we are joined with England by land and we are part of Great Britain Wales is a country in its own right."98 The title Prince of Wales is still conferred on the heir apparent to the British throne currently Prince Charles. However the Prince of Wales has no constitutional role in modern Wales.99 According to the Welsh Assembly Government: "Our Prince of Wales at the moment is Prince Charles who is the present heir to the throne. But he does not have a role in the governance of Wales even though his title might suggest that he does."98 Government and politics Main article: Politics of Wales See also: Politics of the United Kingdom and National Assembly for Wales election 2007 Royal Badge of Wales Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom (UK).5 Constitutionally the UK is a de jure unitary state its sovereign parliament and government in Westminster. In the House of Commons the lower house of the UK government Wales is represented by 40 MPs (of 646) from Welsh constituencies. Labour MPs hold 29 of the 40 seats the Liberal Democrats hold four seats Plaid Cymru three and the Conservatives three.100 A Secretary of State for Wales sits in the UK cabinet and is responsible for representing matters pertaining to Wales. The Wales Office is a department of the United Kingdom government responsible for Wales. Cheryl Gillan has been Secretary of State for Wales since 12 May 2010 replacing Peter Hain of the previous Labour administration. Gillan was appointed to the new Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition Westminster government following the United Kingdom general election of 2010.101 Referendums held in Wales and Scotland in 1997 chose to establish a limited form of self-government in both countries. In Wales the consequent process of devolution began with the Government of Wales Act 1998 which created the National Assembly for Wales (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru).102 Powers of the Secretary of State for Wales were transferred to the devolved government on 1 July 1999 granting the Assembly responsibility to decide how the Westminster government's budget for devolved areas is spent and administered.103 The 1998 Act was amended by the Government of Wales Act 2006 which enhanced the Assembly's powers giving it legislative powers akin to the Scottish Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly. The Assembly consists of 60 members known as Assembly Members (Aelodau y Cynulliad). Members (AMs (ACau)) are elected for four year terms under an additional member system. Forty of the AMs represent geographical constituencies elected under the First Past the Post system. The remaining twenty AMs represent five electoral regions each representing between seven and nine constituencies using the d'Hondt method of proportional representation.104 The Assembly must elect a First Minister who selects ministers to form the Welsh Assembly Government. The Senedd Designed by Richard Rogers opened on St David's Day (1 March) 2006 Labour remained the largest Assembly party following the 2007 election winning 26 of the 60 seats.104 Having insufficient support to form a government the Labour Party entered into the 'One Wales' agreement with Plaid Cymru forming a coalition the Labour leader as First Minister.105 Carwyn Jones has been First Minister and leader of Welsh Labour since Rhodri Morgan retired from office in December 2009 after nine years and ten months as First Minister.106 Ieuan Wyn Jones Deputy First Minister in the coalition government is leader of Plaid Cymru the second-largest party in the Assembly with 14 of the 60 seats. The Presiding Officer of the Assembly is Lord Elis-Thomas of Plaid Cymru. Other Assembly parties are the Conservative Party the loyal opposition with 13 seats the Liberal Democrats with six seats and one independent member.104 The Lib-Dems had previously formed part of a coalition government with Labour in the first Assembly. Under the 'One Wales' agreement a referendum on giving the Welsh assembly full law-making powers on devolved 'matters' is promised "as soon as practicable at or before the end of the assembly term (in 2011)" and both parties have agreed "in good faith to campaign for a successful outcome to such a referendum".107 The twenty areas of responsibility devolved to the Welsh Assembly Government known as 'matters' include agriculture economic development education health housing local government social services tourism transport and the Welsh language.108109 On its creation in 1999 the National Assembly for Wales had no primary legislative powers.110 However since the Government of Wales Act 2006 (GoWA 2006) came into effect in 2007 the Assembly has power to pass primary legislation as Assembly Measures on some specific matters within the areas of devolved responsibility. Further matters have been added subsequently either directly by the UK Parliament or by the UK Parliament approving a Legislative Competence Order (LCO); a request from the National Assembly for additional powers. The GoWA 2006 allows for the Assembly to gain primary lawmaking powers on a more extensive range of matters within the same devolved areas if approved in a referendum.111 A referendum on extending the law-making powers of the National Assembly was accordingly held on 3 March 2011. It asked the question: "Do you want the Assembly now to be able to make laws on all matters in the 20 subject areas it has powers for" The result of the vote was that 63.49% voted 'yes' and 36.51% voted 'no'. Consequently the Assembly is now able to make laws known as Acts of the Assembly on all matters in the subject areas without needing the UK Parliament's agreement.112 Wales is also a distinct UK electoral region of the European Union represented by four Members of the European Parliament. Local government Main article: Local government in Wales See also: History of local government in Wales For the purposes of local government Wales has been divided into 22 council areas since 1996. These "unitary authorities" are responsible for the provision of all local government services.113 Map of unitary authority areas Blaenau Gwent Bridgend (Pen-y-bont ar Ogwr) Caerphilly (Caerffili) Cardiff (Caerdydd) * Carmarthenshire (Sir Gaerfyrddin) Ceredigion Conwy Denbighshire (Sir Ddinbych) Flintshire (Sir y Fflint) Gwynedd Isle of Anglesey (Ynys Mn) Merthyr Tydfil (Merthyr Tudful) Monmouthshire (Sir Fynwy) Neath Port Talbot (Castell-nedd Port Talbot) Newport (Casnewydd) * Pembrokeshire (Sir Benfro) Powys Rhondda Cynon Taf Swansea (Abertawe) * Torfaen (Tor-faen) Vale of Glamorgan (Bro Morgannwg) Wrexham (Wrecsam) Areas are Counties unless marked *(for Cities) or (for County Boroughs). Welsh language forms are given in parentheses where they differ from the English.. Note: Wales has five cities. In addition to Cardiff Newport and Swansea the communities of Bangor and St David's also have city status in the United Kingdom. Law and order Main articles: Welsh Law English law and Contemporary Welsh Law See also: Marcher Lord The Old Court House Ruthin Denbighshire built 1401 following Owain Glyndr's attack on the town By tradition Welsh Law was compiled during an assembly held at Whitland around 930 CE by Hywel Dda king of most of Wales between 942 and his death in 950. The 'law of Hywel Dda' (Cyfraith Hywel) as it became known codified the previously existing folk laws and legal customs that had evolved in Wales over centuries. Welsh Law emphasised the payment of compensation for a crime to the victim or the victim's kin rather than on punishment by the ruler.114115116 Other than in the Marches where law was imposed by the Marcher Lords Welsh Law remained in force in Wales until the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. Edward I of England annexed the Principality of Wales following the death of Llywelyn the Last and Welsh Law was replaced for criminal cases under the Statute. Marcher Law and Welsh Law (for civil cases) remained in force until Henry VIII of England annexed the whole of Wales under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 (often referred to as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543) after which English Law applied to the whole of Wales.114117 The Wales and Berwick Act 1746 provided that all laws that applied to England would automatically apply to Wales (and the Anglo-Scottish border town of Berwick) unless the law explicitly stated otherwise. This act with regard to Wales was repealed in 1967. However excluding those matters devolved to Wales since 1999 English law has been the legal system of Wales and England since 1536.118 English law is regarded as a common law system with no major codification of the law and legal precedents are binding as opposed to persuasive. The court system is headed by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom which is the highest court of appeal in the land for criminal and civil cases. The Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales is the highest court of first instance as well as an appellate court. The three divisions are the Court of Appeal; the High Court of Justice and the Crown Court. Minor cases are heard by the Magistrates' Courts or the County Court. Since devolution in 2006 the Welsh Assembly has had the authority to draft and approve some laws outside of the UK Parliamentary system to meet the specific needs of Wales. Under powers conferred by Legislative Competency Orders agreed by all parliamentary stakeholders it is able to pass laws known as Assembly Measures in relation to specific fields such as health and education. As such Assembly Measures are a subordinate form of primary legislation lacking the scope of UK-wide acts of parliament but able to be passed without the approval of the UK parliament or Royal Assent for each 'act'. Through this primary legislation the Welsh Assembly Government can then also draft more specific secondary legislation. In 2007 the Wales and Cheshire Region (known as the Wales and Cheshire Circuit before 2005) came to an end when Cheshire was attached to the North-Western England Region. From that point Wales became a legal unit in its own right.119 Wales is served by four regional police forces Dyfed-Powys Police Gwent Police North Wales Police and South Wales Police. There are four prisons in Wales though all are based in the southern half of the country. As well as no northern provision for Welsh prisoners there are no female prisons in Wales with inmates being housed in English prisons.120121 Geography and natural history Tor Bay and Three Cliffs Bay Gower (Gyr) Swansea Main article: Geography of Wales See also: List of settlements in Wales by population and List of towns in Wales Wales is a generally mountainous country on the western side of central southern Great Britain.122 It is about 274 km (170 mi) northsouth and 97 km (60 mi) eastwest.123 The oft-quoted 'size of Wales' is about 20779 km (8023 sq mi).124125 Wales is bordered by England to the east and by sea in all other directions: the Irish Sea (Mr Iwerddon) to the north and west St George's Channel (Sianel San Sir) and the Celtic Sea (Y Mr Celtaidd) to the southwest and the Bristol Channel (Mr Hafren) to the south.126127 Altogether Wales has over 1180 km (733 mi) of coastline.128 Over 50 islands lie off the Welsh mainland; the largest being Anglesey (Ynys Mn) in the northwest. Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa) Gwynedd the highest mountain in Wales Much of Wales' diverse landscape is mountainous particularly in the north and central regions. The mountains were shaped during the last ice age the Devensian glaciation. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia (Eryri) of which five are over 1000 m (3281 ft); known as 'super-mountains'. The highest of these is Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa) at 1085 m (3560 ft).129130 The 14 (or 15 if including Garnedd Uchaf; often discounted due to its low topographic prominence) Welsh mountains over 3000 feet (914 m) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s and are located in a small area in the north-west.131 The highest outside the 3000s is Aran Fawddwy at 905 metres (2969 ft) in the south of Snowdonia.132 The Brecon Beacons (Welsh: Bannau Brycheiniog) are in the south (highest point Pen-y-Fan at 886 metres (2907 ft)) and are joined by the Cambrian Mountains in Mid Wales. The highest pint being Pumlumon at 752 metres (2467 ft). Map of the National Parks of Wales Wales has three national parks: Snowdonia Brecon Beacons and Pembrokeshire Coast. It has five Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty.133 These areas include Anglesey the Clwydian Range the Gower Peninsula and the Wye Valley. The Gower Peninsula was the first area in the United Kingdom to be designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in 1956. Forty two percent of the coastline of South and West Wales is designated as Heritage Coast with 13 specific designated strips of coastline maintained by the Countryside Council of Wales.134 As from 2010 the coastline of Wales has 45 Blue Flag beaches and five Blue Flag marinas.135 Despite its Heritage and award winning beaches; the south and west coasts of Wales along with the Irish and Cornish coasts are frequently blasted by Atlantic westerlies/south westerlies that over the years have sunk and wrecked many vessels. On the night of 25 October 1859 over 110 ships were destroyed off the coast of Wales when a hurricane blew in from the Atlantic.136 More than 800 lives were lost across Britain due to the storm but the greatest tragedy was the sinking of the Royal Charter of the coast of Anglesey in which 459 people died.137 The number of shipwrecks around the coast of Wales reached a peak in the 19th century with over 100 craft losses and an average loss of life of about 78 sailors per year.138 Wartime action caused losses near Holyhead Milford Haven and Swansea.138 Due to offshore rocks and unlit islands Anglesey and Pembrokeshire are still notorious for shipwrecks most notably the Sea Empress Disaster in 1996.139 The first border between Wales and England was zonal apart from around the River Wye which was the first accepted boundary.140 Offa's Dyke was supposed to form an early distinct line but this was thwarted by Gruffudd ap Llewellyn who reclaimed swathes of land beyond the dyke.140 The Act of Union of 1536 formed a linear border stretching from the mouth of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye.140 Even after the Act of Union many of the borders remained vague and moveable until the Welsh Sunday Closing act of 1881 which forced local businesses to decide which country they fell within to accept either the Welsh or English law.140 Llyn y Fan Fawr Powys within the Brecon Beacons National Park The Seven Wonders of Wales is a list in doggerel verse of seven geographic and cultural landmarks in Wales probably composed in the late 18th century under the influence of tourism from England.141 All the "wonders" are in north Wales: Snowdon (the highest mountain) the Gresford bells (the peal of bells in the medieval church of All Saints at Gresford) the Llangollen bridge (built in 1347 over the River Dee St Winefride's Well (a pilgrimage site at Holywell) in Flintshire the Wrexham (Wrecsam) steeple (16th-century tower of St Giles' Church Wrexham) the Overton Yew trees (ancient yew trees in the churchyard of St. Mary's at Overton-on-Dee) and Pistyll Rhaeadr a tall waterfall at 240 ft (73 m). The wonders are part of the rhyme: Pistyll Rhaeadr and Wrexham steeple Snowdon's mountain without its people Overton yew trees St Winefride's Wells Llangollen bridge and Gresford bells. Geology See also: Geology of Wales The earliest geological period of the Paleozoic era the Cambrian takes its name from the Cambrian Mountains in mid-Wales where geologists first identified Cambrian remnants.142143 In evolutionary studies the Cambrian is the period when most major groups of complex animals appeared (the Cambrian explosion). The older rocks underlying the Cambrian rocks in Wales lacked fossils which could be used to differentiate their various groups and were referred to as Pre-cambrian. In the mid-19th century two prominent geologists Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick (who first proposed the name of the Cambrian period) independently used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish certain principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology. The next two periods of the Paleozoic era the Ordovician and Silurian were named after ancient Celtic tribes from this area based on Murchison's and Sedgwick's work.144145 Climate See also: Climate of the United Kingdom#Wales Wales Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     159   7 1     114   7 1     119   9 2     86   11 3     81   15 6     86   17 9     78   19 11     106   19 11     124   16 9     153   13 7     157   9 4     173   7 2 Average max. and min. temperatures in C Precipitation totals in mm Source: Met Office Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     6.2   44 34     4.5   44 34     4.7   47 36     3.4   52 38     3.2   58 43     3.4   62 47     3.1   66 52     4.2   66 51     4.9   61 48     6   55 44     6.2   49 39     6.8   45 36 Average max. and min. temperatures in F Precipitation totals in inches Wales lies within the north temperate zone. It has a changeable maritime climate and is one of the wettest countries in Europe.146147 Welsh weather is often cloudy wet and windy with warm summers and mild winters.146148 The long summer days and short winter days are due to Wales' northerly latitudes (between 53 43 N and 51 38 N). Aberystwyth at the mid point of the country's west coast has nearly 17 hours of daylight at the summer solstice. Daylight at midwinter there falls to just over seven and a half hours.149 The country's wide geographic variations cause localised differences in sunshine rainfall and temperature. Average annual coastal temperatures are 10.5 C (50.9 F) and in low lying inland areas 1 C (34 F) lower. It becomes cooler at higher altitudes; annual temperatures decrease on average approximately 0.5 C (32.9 F) each 100 metres (330 ft) of altitude. Consequently the higher parts of Snowdonia experience average annual temperatures of 5 C (41 F).146 Temperatures in Wales are kept higher than would otherwise be expected at its latitude by the North Atlantic Drift a branch of the Gulf Stream. The ocean current bringing warmer water to northerly latitudes has a similar effect on most of north west Europe. As well as its influence on Wales' coastal areas air warmed by the Gulf Stream is carried further inland by the prevailing winds.150 At low elevations summers tend to be warm and sunny. Average maximum temperatures range between 19 C (66 F) and 22 C (72 F). Winters tend to be fairly wet but rainfall is rarely excessive and the temperature usually stays above freezing. Spring and autumn feel quite similar and the temperatures tend to stay above 14 C (57 F) also the average annual daytime temperature.151 Relief map of Wales The sunniest time of year tends to be between May and August. The south-western coast is the sunniest part of Wales averaging over 1700 hours of sunshine annually. Wales' sunniest town is Tenby Pembrokeshire. The dullest time of year tends to be between November and January. The least sunny areas are the mountains some parts of which average less than 1200 hours of sunshine annually.146147 The prevailing wind is south-westerly. Coastal areas are the windiest gales occur most often during winter on average between 15 and 30 days each year depending on location. Inland gales average fewer than six days annually.146 Rainfall patterns show significant variation. The further west the higher the expected rainfall; up to 40% more.147 At low elevations rain is unpredictable at any time of year although the showers tend to be shorter in summer.151 The uplands of Wales have most rain normally more than 50 days of rain during the winter months (December to February) falling to around 35 rainy days during the summer months (June to August). Annual rainfall in Snowdonia averages between 3000 millimetres (120 in) (Blaenau Ffestiniog) and 5000 millimetres (200 in) (Snowdon's summit).147 The likelihood is that it will fall as sleet or snow when the temperature falls below 5 C (41 F) and snow tends to be lying on the ground there for an average of 30 days a year. Snow falls several times each winter in inland areas but is relatively uncommon around the coast. Average annual rainfall in those areas can be less than 1000 millimetres (39 in). Met Office statistics show Swansea to be the wettest city in Great Britain with an average annual rainfall of 1360.8 millimetres (53.57 in).148 This has led to the old adage "If you can see Mumbles Head it is going to rain if you can't it is raining".148 Cardiff is Great Britain's fifth wettest city with 908 millimetres (35.7 in).148 Rhyl is Wales' driest town its average annual rainfall 640 millimetres (25 in).146147 Highest maximum temperature: 35.2 C (95.4 F) at Hawarden Bridge Flintshire on 2 August 1990.152 Lowest minimum temperature: 23.3 C (9.9 F) at Rhayader Radnorshire (now Powys) on 21 January 1940.152 Maximum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 354.3 hours at Dale Fort Pembrokeshire in July 1955.153 Minimum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 2.7 hours at Llwynon Brecknockshire in January 1962.153 Maximum rainfall in a day (0900 UTC 0900 UTC): 211 millimetres (8 in) at Rhondda Glamorgan on 11 November 1929.154 Wettest spot an average of 4473 millimetres (176 in) rain a year at Crib Goch in Snowdonia Gwynedd (making it also the wettest spot in the United Kingdom).155 Flora and fauna The Red Kite (Milvus milvus) a national symbol of Welsh wildlife See also: Fauna of Great Britain Flora of Great Britain and List of birds of Wales Wales wildlife is typical of Britain with several distinctions. Due to its long coastline Wales hosts a variety of seabirds. The coasts and surrounding islands are home to colonies of gannets Manx Shearwater puffins kittiwakes shags and razorbills. In comparison with 60% of Wales above the 150m contour the country also supports a variety of upland habitat birds including raven and ring ouzel.156157 Birds of prey include the merlin hen harrier and the red kite a national symbol of Welsh wildlife.158 In total more than 200 different species of bird have been seen at the RSPB reserve at Conwy including seasonal visitors.159 The larger Welsh mammals died out during the Norman period including the brown bear wolf and the wildcat.160 Today mammals of note include shrews voles badgers otters hedgehogs and fifteen species of bat.160 Two species of small rodent the yellow-necked mouse and the dormouse are of special Welsh note being found at the historically undisturbed border area.160 Other animals of note include otter stoat and weasel. The Pine Marten which has the occasional sighting has not been officially recorded since the 1950s. The polecat was nearly driven to extinction in Britain but hung on in Wales and is now rapidly spreading. Feral goats can be found in Snowdonia. Like Cornwall Brittany and Ireland the waters of South-west Wales of Gower Pembrokeshire and Cardigan Bay attract marine animals including basking sharks Atlantic grey seals leatherback turtles dolphins porpoises jellyfish crabs and lobsters. Pembrokeshire and Ceredigion in particular are recognised as an area of international importance for Bottlenose dolphins and New Quay has the only summer residence of bottlenose dolphins in the whole of the UK. River fish of note include char eel salmon shad sparling and Arctic char whilst the Gwyniad is unique to Wales found only in Bala Lake.161 Wales is also known for its shellfish including cockles limpet mussels and periwinkles.161 Herring mackerel and hake are the more common of the country's seafish.161 The north facing high grounds of Snowdonia support a relict pre-glacial flora including the iconic Snowdon lily -Lloydia serotina and other alpine species such as Saxifraga cespitosa Saxifraga oppositifolia and Silene acaulis an eco-system not found elsewhere in the UK. Wales also hosts a number of plant species not found elsewhere in the UK including the Spotted Rock-rose Tuberaria guttata on Anglesey and Draba aizoides162 on the Gower. Education Main article: Education in Wales See also: List of universities in Wales St. David's Building University of Wales Lampeter (Prifysgol Cymru Llanbedr Pont Steffan) A distinct education system has developed in Wales.163 Formal education before the 18th century was the preserve of the elite. The first grammar schools were established in Welsh towns such as Ruthin Brecon and Cowbridge.163 One of the first successful schooling systems was started by Griffiths Jones who introduced the circulating schools in the 1730s; believed to have taught half the country's population to read.164 In the 19th century with increasing state involvement in education Wales was forced to adopt an education system that was English in ethos even though the country was predominantly Non-conformist Welsh speaking and demographically uneven due to the economic expansion in the south.164 In some schools to ensure Welsh children spoke English at school the Welsh Not was used; a policy seen as a hated symbol of English oppression.165 The "not" a piece of wood hung round the neck by string was given to any child overheard speaking Welsh who would pass it to a different child if overheard speaking Welsh. At the end of the day the wearer of the "not" would be beaten.166167 The extent of its practice however is difficult to determine.168 State and local governmental edicts resulted in schooling in the English language which following Brad y Llyfrau Gleision (the Treachery of the Blue Books) was seen as more academic and worthwhile for children.169 The University College of Wales opened in Aberystwyth in 1872. Cardiff and Bangor followed and the three colleges came together in 1893 to form the University of Wales.164 The Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889 created 95 secondary schools. The Welsh Department for the Board of Education followed in 1907 which gave Wales its first significant educational devolution.164 A resurgence in Welsh language schools in the later half of the 20th century at nursery and primary level saw attitudes shift towards teaching in the medium of Welsh.170 In schools where English is the first language Welsh is a compulsory subject until the age of 16. However there has never been a Welsh-language college and in the University of Wales at the start of the 21st century only 100 of its 5000 academic staff were teaching through the medium of Welsh.170 In 2006 there were 33 nursery 1555 primary 244 secondary comprehensive and 43 special schools with 56 independent schools in Wales. In 2004 the country had 505208 pupils taught by 27378 teachers.171 Economy Main article: Economy of Wales See also: Tourism in Wales Port Talbot Steelworks once the largest employer in Wales172 Over the last 250 years Wales has been transformed first from a predominantly agricultural country to an industrial and now a post-industrial economy.173174 Since the Second World War the service sector has come to account for the majority of jobs a feature typifying most advanced economies.175 Total headline Gross Value Added (GVA) in Wales in 2009 was 44.5 billion or 14842 per head of population; 74.3 per cent of the UK average.176 In the three months to July 2010 the employment rate for working-age adults in Wales was 67 per cent compared to 70.7 per cent across the UK as a whole.177 From the middle of the 19th century until the post-war era the mining and export of coal was a dominant industry. At its peak of production in 1913 nearly 233000 men and women were employed in the South Wales coalfield mining 56 million tons of coal.178 Cardiff was once the largest coal-exporting port in the world and for a few years before the First World War handled a greater tonnage of cargo than either London or Liverpool.179180 In the 1920s over 40% of the male Welsh population worked in heavy industry.181 According to Professor Phil Williams the Great Depression "devastated Wales" north and south due to its "overwhelming dependence on coal and steel".181 From the mid 1970s the Welsh economy faced massive restructuring with large numbers of jobs in traditional heavy industry disappearing and being replaced eventually by new ones in light industry and in services. In the late 1970s and early 1980s Wales was successful in attracting an above average share of foreign direct investment in the UK.182 However much of the new industry was essentially of a "branch factory" ("screwdriver factory") type where a manufacturing plant or call centre is located in Wales but the most highly-paid jobs in the company are retained elsewhere.183184 British one Pound coin (reverse) depicting the Welsh dragon Due to poor-quality soil much of Wales is unsuitable for crop-growing and livestock farming has traditionally been the focus of agriculture. The Welsh landscape (protected by three national parks) and 45 Blue Flag beaches as well as the unique culture of Wales attract large numbers of tourists who play an especially vital role in the economy of rural areas.185186 Wales has struggled to develop or attract high value-added employment in sectors such as finance and research and development attributable in part to a comparative lack of 'economic mass' (i.e. population) Wales lacks a large metropolitan centre.184 The lack of high value-added employment is reflected in lower economic output per head relative to other regions of the UK in 2002 it stood at 90% of the EU25 average and around 80% of the UK average.184 In June 2008 Wales made history by becoming the first nation in the world to be awarded Fairtrade Status.187 The pound sterling is the currency used in Wales. Numerous Welsh banks issued their own banknotes in the 19th century. The last bank to do so closed in 1908 since when although banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland continue to have the right to issue banknotes in their own countries the Bank of England has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in Wales.188189190191 The Commercial Bank of Wales established in Cardiff by Sir Julian Hodge in 1971 was taken over by the Bank of Scotland in 1988 and absorbed into its parent company in 2002.192 The Royal Mint who issue the coinage circulated through the whole of the UK have been based at a single site in Llantrisant since 1980.193 Since decimalisation in 1971 at least one of the coins in UK circulation has depicted a Welsh design e.g. the 1995 and 2000 one Pound coin (shown left). However Wales has not been represented on any coin minted from 2008.194 Healthcare Main article: NHS Wales Public healthcare in Wales is provided by NHS Wales (GIG Cymru) which was originally formed as part of the NHS structure for England and Wales created by the National Health Service Act 1946 but with powers over the NHS in Wales coming under the Secretary of State for Wales in 1969.195 In turn responsibility for NHS Wales was passed to the Welsh Assembly and Executive under devolution in 1999. Historically Wales was served by smaller 'cottage' hospitals built as voluntary institutions.196 As newer more expensive diagnostic techniques and treatments became available through medical advancement much of the clinical work of the country has been concentrated in newer larger district hospitals.196 As of 2006 there were seventeen district hospitals in Wales although none situated in Powys.196 NHS Wales provides public healthcare in Wales and employs some 90000 staff making it Wales biggest employer.197 The Minister for Health and Social Services is the person within the Welsh Assembly Government who holds cabinet responsibilities for both health and social care in Wales.198 A 2009 Welsh health survey conducted by the Welsh Assembly reported that 51% of adults reported their health good or excellent while 21% described their health as fair or poor.199 The survey also recorded that 27% of Welsh adults had a long-term chronic illness such as arthritis asthma diabetes and heart disease.198200 Enquiries into health related lifestyle choices report 27% of the adult population are smokers 45% admit drinking alcohol above recommended guidelines at least once a week while 29% undertake the recommended weekly physical activity.198 Demographics Main articles: Demography of Wales and Demography of the United Kingdom Swansea City Centre and Swansea Bay Wales' second most populous city The United Kingdom Census 2001 reported a population in Wales of 2903085 which has risen to 2958876 according to 2005 estimates.201 The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales consisting of the cities of Cardiff Swansea and Newport and surrounding areas with another significant population in the north-east around Wrexham. According to the 2001 census 96% of the population was White British and 2.1% non-white (mainly of British Asian origin).202 Most non-white groups were concentrated in the southern port cities of Cardiff Newport and Swansea. Welsh Asian and African communities developed mainly through immigration since the Second World War.203 In the early 21st century parts of Wales saw an increased number of immigrants settle from recent EU accession countries such as Poland;204 though a 2007 study showed a relatively low number of employed immigrant workers from the former Eastern bloc countries in Wales compared to other regions of the United Kingdom.205 Roald Dahl Plass Cardiff Bay In the 2001 Labour Force Survey 72% of adults in Wales considered their national identity as wholly Welsh and another 7% considered themselves to be partly Welsh (Welsh and British were the most common combination). A recent study estimated that 35% of the Welsh population have surnames of Welsh origin (5.4% of the English and 1.6% of the Scottish population also bore 'Welsh' names).206 However many modern surnames derived from old Welsh personal names actually arose in England.207 In 2001 a quarter of the Welsh population were born outside Wales mainly in England; about 3% were born outside the UK. The proportion of people who were born in Wales differs across the country with the highest percentages in the South Wales Valleys and the lowest in Mid Wales and parts of the north-east. In both Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil 92% were Welsh-born compared to only 51% and 56% in the border counties of Flintshire and Powys.208 Just over 1.75 million Americans report themselves to have Welsh ancestry as did 440965 Canadians in Canada's 2006 census.209210 Languages Main articles: Welsh language and English language The National Eisteddfod an annual celebration of Welsh culture conducted in Welsh In his 1707 work Archaeologia Britannica Edward Lhuyd Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum noted the similarity between the two Celtic language families: Brythonic or PCeltic (Breton Cornish and Welsh); and Goidelic or QCeltic (Irish Manx and Scottish Gaelic). He argued that the Brythonic languages originated in Gaul (France) and that the Goidelic languages originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Lhuyd concluded that as the languages had been of Celtic origin the people who spoke those languages were Celts. (According to a more recent hypothesis also widely embraced today Goidelic and Brythonic languages collectively known as Insular Celtic languages evolved together for some time separately from Continental Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Celtiberian.) From the 18th century the peoples of Brittany Cornwall Ireland Isle of Man Scotland and Wales were known increasingly as Celts and they are regarded as the modern Celtic nations today.211212 The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the English and Welsh languages be treated on a basis of equality. English is spoken by almost all people in Wales and is the de facto main language. Code-switching is common in all parts of Wales and is known by various terms though none is recognised by professional linguists.213 "Wenglish" is the Welsh English language dialect. It has been influenced significantly by Welsh grammar and includes words derived from Welsh. According to John Davies Wenglish has "been the object of far greater prejudice than anything suffered by Welsh".214215 Northern and western Wales retain many areas where Welsh is spoken as a first language by the majority of the population and English learnt as a second language. The 2001 census showed 582400 people 20.8% of the Welsh population were able to speak Welsh an increase from the 19.0% shown in the 1981 census.216 According to language surveys conducted in 2004 and 2006 that number has dropped slightly to 20.5% and the number of fluent speakers dropped by 3% between 1992 and 2006.217218 Although monoglotism in young children continues life-long monoglotism in Welsh is recognised to be a thing of the past.219 Road signs in Wales are generally in both English and Welsh; where place names differ in the two languages both versions are used (e.g. "Cardiff" and "Caerdydd"). The decision as to which is placed first being that of the local authority. During the 20th century a number of small communities of speakers of languages other than Welsh or English such as Bengali or Cantonese established themselves in Wales as a result of immigration. Religion St. David's Cathedral Pembrokeshire The largest religion in Wales is Christianity with 71.9% of the population describing themselves as Christian in the 2001 census.220 The Church in Wales with 56000 adherents has the largest attendance of the denominations.221 It is a province of the Anglican Communion and was part of the Church of England until disestablishment in 1920 under the Welsh Church Act 1914. The Presbyterian Church of Wales was born out of the Welsh Methodist revival in the 18th century and seceded from the Church of England in 1811.222 The second largest attending faith in Wales is Roman Catholic with an estimated 43000 members.221 Non-Christian religions are small in Wales making up approximately 1.5% of the population.220 The 2001 census recorded 18.5% of people declaring no religion while 8% did not reply to the question.220 The patron saint of Wales is Saint David (Dewi Sant) with St David's Day (Dydd Gyl Dewi Sant) celebrated annually on 1 March. In 1904 there was a religious revival (known by some as the 1904-1905 Welsh Revival or simply The 1904 Revival) which started through the evangelism of Evan Roberts and saw large numbers of people converting to nonconformist and Anglican Christianity sometimes whole communities.223 Robert's style of preaching became the blueprint for new religious bodies such as Pentacostalism and the Apostolic Church.224 The Apostolic Church holds its annual Apostolic Conference in Swansea each year usually in August. Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Wales with more than 30000 reported Muslims in the 2001 census. There are also communities of Hindus and Sikhs mainly in the South Wales cities of Newport Cardiff and Swansea while the largest concentration of Buddhists is in the western rural county of Ceredigion.225 Judaism was the first non-Christian faith (excluding pre-Roman animism) to be established in Wales however as of the year 2001 the community has declined to approximately 2000.226 Paganism and Wicca are also growing in Wales. According to the 2001 Census there are 7000-recorded Wiccans in England and Wales with 31000 Pagans.227 Culture Main article: Culture of Wales Part of a series on the Culture of Wales Cuisine Bara brith  Bara Lafwr  Cawl  Cawl Cennin  Crempog  Gower cuisine  Selsig Morgannwg  Tatws Pum Munud  Welsh breakfast  Welsh cake  Welsh rarebit Dress Traditional Welsh costume Festivals Calennig  Dydd Santes Dwynwen  Gyl Fair y Canhwyllau  Saint David's Day  Calan Mai  Calan Awst  Calan Gaeaf  Gyl Mabsant  Gyl San Steffan  Eisteddfod Land division Commote  Cantref  Historic counties Language Welsh (Cymraeg)  Welsh English  History of the Welsh language  Welsh placenames  Welsh surnames  Welsh medium education  Y Fro Gymraeg Law Welsh law  Contemporary Welsh law Literature Welsh-language literature  English-language literature  Medieval Welsh literature  Welsh-language authors  Welsh-language poets Music Cerdd Dant  Crwth  Cymanfa Ganu  Cynghanedd  Noson Lawen  Pibgorn  Tabwrdd  Telyn Deires  Twmpath  Welsh bagpipes Mythology Welsh mythology  Matter of Britain  Arthurian legend Sport Bando   Boxing   Cnapan  Cricket   Football   Horse racing   Rugby league   Rugby union Symbols Flag of Wales  Flag of Saint David  List of Welsh flags  Welsh Dragon  Welsh heraldry  Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau Visual arts Art  Cinema  Media Wales Portal v d e Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language customs holidays and music. Wales has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: The Castles and Town walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd; Pontcysyllte Aqueduct; and the Blaenavon Industrial Landscape.228 Mythology Main article: Welsh mythology The remnants of the native Celtic mythology of the pre-Christian Britons was passed down orally in much altered form by the cynfeirdd (the early poets).229 Some of their work survives in much later medieval Welsh manuscripts known as: the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Book of Aneirin (both 13th century); the Book of Taliesin and the White Book of Rhydderch (both 14th century); and the Red Book of Hergest (c. 1400).229 The prose stories from the White and Red Books are known as the Mabinogion a title given to them by their first translator Lady Charlotte Guest and also used by subsequent translators.230 Poems such as Cad Goddeu (The Battle of the Trees) and mnemonic list-texts like the Welsh Triads and the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain also contain mythological material.231232233 These texts also include the earliest forms of the Arthurian legend and the traditional history of post-Roman Britain.229 Other sources of Welsh folklore include the 9th century Latin historical compilation Historia Britonum (the History of the Britons) and Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae (the History of the Kings of Britain) as well as later folklore such as The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn Thomas.234235 Visual arts Main article: Welsh art Many works of Celtic art have been found in Wales.236 In the Early Medieval period the Celtic Christianity of Wales was part of the Insular art of the British Isles. A number of illuminated manuscripts from Wales survive of which the 8th century Hereford Gospels and Lichfield Gospels are the most notable. The 11th century Ricemarch Psalter (now in Dublin) is certainly Welsh made in St David's and shows a late Insular style with unusual Viking influence.237238 The best of the few Welsh artists of the 16th18th centuries tended to leave the country to work many of them moving to London and Italy. Richard Wilson (171482) is arguably the first major British landscapist. Although more notable for his Italian scenes he painted several Welsh scenes on visits from London. By the late 18th century the popularity of landscape art grew and clients were found in the larger Welsh towns allowing more Welsh artists to stay in their homeland. Artists from outside Wales were also drawn to paint Welsh scenery at first due to the Celtic Revival. Then in the early 19th century the Napoleonic Wars preventing the Grand Tour to continental Europe travel through Wales came to be considered more accessible.239240 The Bard 1774 by Thomas Jones (17421803) An Act of Parliament in 1857 provided for the establishment of a number of art schools throughout the United Kingdom and the Cardiff School of Art opened in 1865. Graduates still very often had to leave Wales to work but Betws-y-Coed became a popular centre for artists and its artist's colony helped form the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art in 1881.241 The sculptor Sir William Goscombe John made many works for Welsh commissions although he had settled in London. Christopher Williams whose subjects were mostly resolutely Welsh was also based in London. Thomas E. Stephens and Andrew Vicari had very successful careers as portraitists based respectively in the United States and France.242243 Sir Frank Brangwyn was Welsh by origin but spent little time in Wales. Many Welsh painters gravitated towards the art capitals of Europe. Augustus John and his sister Gwen John lived mostly in London and Paris. However the landscapists Sir Kyffin Williams and Peter Prendergast lived in Wales for most of their lives though remaining in touch with the wider art world. Ceri Richards was very engaged in the Welsh art scene; as a teacher in Cardiff and even after moving to London. He was a figurative painter in international styles including Surrealism. Various artists have moved to Wales including Eric Gill the London-Welshman David Jones and the sculptor Jonah Jones. The Kardomah Gang was a intellectual circle centred on the poet Dylan Thomas and poet and artist Vernon Watkins in Swansea which also included the painter Alfred Janes.244 South Wales had several notable potteries one of the first important sites being the Ewenny Pottery in Bridgend which began producing earthenware in the 17th century.245 In the 18th and 19th centuries with more scientific methods becoming available more refined ceramics were produced led by the Cambrian Pottery (17641870 also known as "Swansea pottery") and later Nantgarw Pottery near Cardiff which was in operation from 1813 to 1822 making fine porcelain and then utilitarian pottery until 1920.245 Portmeirion Pottery founded in 1960 by Susan Williams-Ellis daughter of Clough Williams-Ellis creator of the italianate village of Portmeirion Gwynedd is based in Stoke-on-Trent England.246 Literature in Wales Main articles: Literature of Wales (Welsh language) List of Welsh writers and Literature of Wales (English language) Wales can claim one of the oldest unbroken literary traditions in Europe.247 The literary tradition of Wales stretches back to the sixth century and with the inclusion of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales boasts two of the finest Latin authors of the Middle Ages.247 The earliest body of Welsh verse by poets Taliesin and Aneirin survive not in their original form but in medieval versions and have undergone significant linguistic changes.247 Welsh poetry and native lore and learning survived the Dark Ages through the era of the Poets of the Princes (c11001280) and then the Poets of the Gentry (c1350-1650). The Poets of the Princes were professional poets who composed eulogies and elegies to the Welsh princes while the Poets of the Gentry where a school of poets that favoured the cywydd metre.248 The period is notable for producing one of Wales' greatest poets Dafydd ap Gwilym.249 After the Anglicisation of the gentry the tradition declined.248 Despite the extinction of the professional poet the integration of the native elite into a wider cultural world did bring other literary benefits.250 Humanists such as William Salesbury and John Davies brought Renaissance ideals from English universities when they returned to Wales.250 While in 1588 William Morgan became the first person to translate the Bible into Welsh.250 From the 16th Century onwards the proliferation of the 'free-metre' verse became the most important development in Welsh poetry but from the middle of the 17th century a host of imported accentual metres from England became very popular.250 By the 19th century the creation of a Welsh epic fuelled by the eisteddfod became an obsession with Welsh language writers.251 The output of this period was prolific in quantity but unequal in quality.252 Initially the eisteddfod was askance with the religious denominations but in time these bodies came to dominate the competitions with the bardic themes becoming increasingly scriptural and didactic.252 The period is notable for the adoption by Welsh poets of bardic names made popular by the eisteddfod movement. Major developments in 19th century Welsh literature include Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of the Mabinogion one of the most important medieval Welsh prose tales of Celtic mythology into English. 1885 saw the publication of Rhys Lewis by Daniel Owen credited as the first novel written in the Welsh language. The 20th century experienced an important shift away from the stilted and long-winded Victorian Welsh prose with Thomas Gwynn Jones leading the way with his 1902 work Ymadawiad Arthur.251 The slaughter in the trenches of the First World War had a profound effect on Welsh literature with a more pessimistic style of prose championed by T. H. Parry-Williams and R. Williams Parry.251 The industrialisation of south Wales saw a further shift with the likes of Rhydwen Williams who used the poetry and metre of a bygone rural Wales but in the context of an industrial landscape. Though the inter-war period is dominated by Saunders Lewis for his political and reactionary views as much as his plays poetry and criticism.251 After the end of the Second World War several Welsh poets and writers in the English language came to note. These included Alexander Cordell whose novels are often set within a historic Wales while Gwyn Thomas became the voice of the English speaking Welsh valleys with his humorous take on grim lives. At the same time the post war period saw the emergence of one of the most notable and popular Welsh writers of the 20th century; Dylan Thomas one of the most innovative poets of his time.253 Other important authors born in Wales but not writing in the Welsh language or with a 'Welsh' style include Nobel Prize winner Bertrand Russell and children's writer Roald Dahl. Sport Main article: Sport in Wales Millennium Stadium Cardiff Over fifty national governing bodies regulate and organise their sports in Wales.254 Most of those involved in competitive sports select organise and manage individuals or teams to represent their country at international events or fixtures against other countries. Wales is represented at major world sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympics Games Welsh athletes compete alongside those of Scotland England and Northern Ireland as part of a Great Britain team. Although football has traditionally been the more popular sport in North Wales rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness.255 The Welsh national rugby union team takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship and has also competed in every Rugby World Cup hosting the tournament in 1999. The five professional sides that replaced the traditional club sides in major competitions in 2003 were replaced in 2004 by the four regions: Scarlets; Cardiff Blues; Newport Gwent Dragons; and the Ospreys.256257 The Welsh regional teams play in the Magners League the Anglo-Welsh Cup (LV Cup) the European Heineken Cup and the European (Amlin) Challenge Cup. Wales has had its own football league since 1992.258 For historical reasons two Welsh clubs (Cardiff City and Swansea City) play in the English Football League.259 Another four Welsh clubs play in English football's feeder leagues: Wrexham Newport County Merthyr Town and Colwyn Bay. In international cricket Wales and England field a single representative team administered by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) called the England cricket team or simply 'England'.260 Occasionally a separate Wales team play limited-overs competitions. Glamorgan County Cricket Club is the only Welsh participant in the England and Wales County Championship.261 Wales has produced several world-class participants of individual sports including snooker players Ray Reardon Terry Griffiths Mark Williams and Matthew Stevens.262 Track athletes who have made a mark on the world stage including the 110-metre hurdler Colin Jackson who is a former world record holder and the winner of numerous Olympic World and European medals as well as Tanni Grey-Thompson who has won 11 Paralympic gold medals.263264 Wales also has a tradition of producing world-class boxers. Joe Calzaghe was WBO World Super-Middleweight Champion who then won the WBA WBC and Ring Magazine super middleweight and Ring Magazine Light-Heavyweight titles.265 Other former boxing World champions include Enzo Maccarinelli Freddie Welsh Howard Winstone Percy Jones Jimmy Wilde Steve Robinson and Robbie Regan.266 Media Main article: Media in Wales See also: List of newspapers in Wales All Welsh television broadcasts are digital. The last of the analogue transmitters ceased broadcasts in April 2010 and Wales became the UK's first digital nation.267 Cardiff is home to the television output of Wales. BBC Cymru Wales is the national broadcaster.268 Based in Llandaff Cardiff it produces Welsh-oriented English and Welsh language television for BBC ONE Wales BBC TWO Wales and S4C channels.269 BBC Cymru Wales has also produced programmes such as Life on Mars Dr Who and Torchwood shown worldwide.268270 ITV the UK's main commercial broadcaster has a Welsh-oriented service branded as ITV Wales whose studios are in Culverhouse Cross Cardiff.271 S4C based in Llanishen Cardiff first broadcast on 1 November 1982. Its output was mostly Welsh language at peak hours but shared English language content with Channel 4 at other times. Since the digital switchover in April 2010 the channel has broadcast exclusively in Welsh. BBC Cymru Wales provide S4C with ten hours of programming per week. Their remaining output is commissioned from ITV and independent producers.272 BBC Cymru Wales is Wales' only national radio broadcaster. BBC Radio Wales is their English language radio service broadcasting throughout Wales in English. BBC Radio Cymru is their Welsh language radio service broadcasting throughout Wales in Welsh.268 A number of independent radio stations broadcast to the Welsh regions predominantly in English. Several regional radio stations broadcast in Welsh: output ranges from two two minute news bulletins each weekday (Radio Maldwyn) through over 14 hours of Welsh language programmes weekly (Swansea Sound) to essentually bilingual stations offering between 37% and 44% of programme content (Heart Cymru (formerly Champion 103) and Radio Ceredigion respectively).273 Most of the newspapers sold and read in Wales are national newspapers available throughout Britain unlike in Scotland where many newspapers have rebranded into Scottish based titles. The Western Mail is Wales' only national daily newspaper.274 Wales-based regional daily newspapers include: Daily Post (which covers north Wales); South Wales Evening Post (Swansea); South Wales Echo (Cardiff); and South Wales Argus (Newport).274 Y Cymro is a Welsh language newspaper published weekly.275 Wales on Sunday is the only Welsh Sunday newspaper to cover the whole of Wales.276 The Welsh Books Council (WBC) is the Welsh Assembly Government funded body tasked with promoting Welsh literature.277 The WBC provides publishing grants for qualifying English and Welsh language publications.278 Around 600650 books are published each year by some of the dozens of Welsh publishers.279280 Wales' main publishing houses include Gomer Press Gwasg Carreg Gwalch Honno the University of Wales Press and Y Lolfa.279 Magazines published in Welsh and English cover general and specialist subjects. Cambria a Welsh affairs magazine published bi-monthly in English has subscribers in over 30 countries.281 Titles published quarterly in English include Planet and Poetry Wales.282283 Welsh language magazines include the current affairs titles Golwg (View) (published weekly) and Barn (Opinion) (monthly).275 Among the specialist magazines Y Wawr (The Dawn) is published quarterly by Merched y Wawr the national organisation for women.275 Y Traethodydd (The Essayist) a quarterly publication by The Presbyterian Church of Wales first appeared in 1845; the oldest Welsh publication still in print.275 Cuisine Main article: Welsh cuisine About 78% of the land surface of Wales is given over to agricultural use.284 However very little of this is arable land; the vast majority consists of permanent grass pasture or rough grazing for herd animals such as sheep and cows. Although both beef and dairy cattle are raised widely especially in Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire Wales is more well-known for its sheep farming and thus lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Welsh cooking. Traditional dishes include laverbread (made from laver (porphyra umbilicalis) an edible seaweed); bara brith (fruit bread); Cawl (a lamb stew); cawl cennin (leek soup); Welsh cakes; and Welsh lamb. Cockles are sometimes served as a traditional breakfast with bacon and laverbread.285 Although Wales has its own traditional food and has absorbed much of the cuisine of England Welsh diets now owe more to the countries of India China and the United States.286 Chicken Tikka Masala is the country's favourite dish while hamburgers and Chinese food outsell fish and chips as a takeaway.286 Performing arts Music Main article: Music of Wales See also: Music of Cardiff Traditional Welsh folk singer and harpist Sin James live on stage at the Festival Interceltique de Lorient Wales is often referred to as "the land of song"287 and is notable for its harpists male choirs and solo artists. The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the annual National Eisteddfod. The Llangollen International Eisteddfod echoes the National Eisteddfod but provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform. Traditional music and dance in Wales is supported by a myriad of societies. The Welsh Folk Song Society has published a number of collections of songs and tunes. Traditional instruments of Wales include telyn deires (triple harp) fiddle crwth pibgorn (hornpipe) and other instruments.288289290291 The Cerdd Dant Society promotes its specific singing art primarily through an annual one-day festival. The BBC National Orchestra of Wales performs in Wales and internationally. The Welsh National Opera is based at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff Bay while the National Youth Orchestra of Wales was the first of its type in the world.292 Wales has a tradition for producing notable singing artists including Sir Geraint Evans Dame Gwyneth Jones Dame Anne Evans Dame Margaret Price Ivor Novello John Cale Sir Tom Jones Bonnie Tyler Bryn Terfel Mary Hopkin Charlotte Church Katherine Jenkins Meic Stevens Dame Shirley Bassey and Duffy. Popular bands to have emerged from Wales have included the Beatles-nurtured power pop group Badfinger in the 1960s Man and Budgie in the 1970s and The Alarm in the 1980s. Wales experienced a strong emergence of groups during the 1990s led by Manic Street Preachers followed by the likes of the Stereophonics and Feeder; notable during this period were Catatonia Super Furry Animals and Gorky's Zygotic Mynci who gained popular success as dual-language artists. Recently successful Welsh bands include Lostprophets Bullet for My Valentine Funeral for a Friend and Kids in Glass Houses. The Welsh traditional and folk music scene is in resurgence with performers and bands such as Crasdant Carreg Lafar Fernhill Sin James and The Hennessys. The emergence of male voice choirs in the 19th century has remained a lasting tradition in Wales. Originally these choirs where formed as the tenor and bass sections of chapel choirs and embraced the popular secular hymns of the day.293 Many of the historic choirs continue to survive in modern Wales singing a mixture of traditional and popular songs. Drama See also: Cinema of Wales The earliest surviving Welsh plays are two medieval miracle plays Y Tri Brenin o Gwlen and Y Dioddefaint a'r Atgyfodiad.294 A recognised Welsh tradition of theatre emerged on the 18th century in the form of an interlude a metrical play performed at fairs and markets.295 The larger Welsh towns began building theatres during the 19th century and drew in the likes of James Sheridan Knowles and William Charles Macready to Wales. Along with the playhouses there existed mobile companies at visiting fairs though from 1912 most of these travelling theatres settled purchasing theatres to perform in. Drama in the early 20th century thrived but the country failed to produce a Welsh National Theatre company. After the Second World War the substantial number of amateur companies that existed before the outbreak of hostilities reduced by two thirds.296 Though the increasing competition of television in the 1950s and 1960s saw a need for greater professionalism in the theatre.296 The result of which saw the plays of the likes of Emlyn Williams and Alun Owen staged while Welsh actors including Richard Burton Rachel Roberts Donald Houston and Stanley Baker were establishing themselves as artistic talents.296 Welsh actors to have crossed the Atlantic more recently to star in Hollywood films include: Ioan Gruffudd; Anthony Hopkins; Matthew Rhys; Michael Sheen; and Catherine Zeta-Jones.297 Welsh comedians include Tommy Cooper Griff Rhys Jones Harry Secombe and Paul Whitehouse. Dance Dance as a pastime is a popular hobby in Wales while the country's traditional dance lie in folk dancing and clog dancing. The first mention of dancing in Wales was recorded in a 12th Century account by Giraldus Cambrensis but by the 19th Century traditional dance had all but died out; attributed to the influence of Nonconformists and their belief that any physical diversion was worthless and satanic especially mixed dancing.298 These ancient dances orally passed down were almost single-handedly rescued by Lois Blake (18901974) who recorded them in numerous instruction pamphlets recording both steps and music.298 In a similar vein clog dancing was preserved and developed by the likes of Howel Wood (18821967) who perpetuated the art at local and national stages.299 Clog dancing traditionally a male dominated art is now a common part of eisteddfodau.299 In 2010 a 30 year traditional dance festival held in Caernarvon came to an end after a lack of attending participants300 though clog dancing has seen a revival during the early part of the 21st century.301 The Welsh Folk Dance Society was founded in 1949299 and it supports a network of national amateur dance teams and publishes support material. Contemporary dance grew out of the capital in the 1970s one of the earliest companies Moving Being came from London to Cardiff in 1973.299 Jumpers Dance Company was formed in 1978 eventually becoming The Dance Company of Wales. Conversely Wales does not have its own national ballet company.298 Museums and libraries The National Museum of Wales was founded by royal charter in 1907 and is now an Welsh Government sponsored body. The National Museum is made up of seven sites across the country including the National Museum Cardiff St Fagans National History Museum and Big Pit National Coal Museum. In April 2001 the attractions attached to the National Museum were granted free entry by the Assembly and this action saw the visitor numbers to the sites increase during 20012002 by 87.8% to 1430428.302 Aberystwyth is home to the National Library of Wales which houses some of the most important collections in Wales including the John William's Library and the Shirburn Castle collection.303 As well as its printed collection the Library holds important Welsh art collections including portraits and photographs ephemera such as postcards posters and Ordnance Survey maps.303 Festivals As well as celebrating many of the traditional religious festivals of Great Britain such as Easter and Christmas Wales has its own unique celebratory days. An early festivity was Mabsant where local parishes would celebrate the patron saint of their local church.304 This celebration died out in the 19th century to be replaced by Saint David's Day; celebrated on 1 March throughout Wales and by Welsh expats around the world. Commemorating the patron saint of friendship and love Dydd Santes Dwynwen's popularity has been increasing recently. It is celebrated on 25 January in a similar way to St Valentine's Day; by exchanging cards and by holding parties and concerts.305 Calan Gaeaf associated with the supernatural and the dead is observed on 1 November. It has largely been replaced by Hallowe'en. Other festivities include Calan Mai celebrating the beginning of summer Calan Awst and Gyl Fair y Canhwyllau.306 Transport Main article: Transport in Wales See also: Transport in Cardiff The Second Severn Crossing carrying the M4 Motorway The main road artery linking cities and other settlements along the south Wales coast is the M4 motorway. It also provides a link to England and eventually London. The Welsh section of the motorway managed by the Welsh Assembly Government runs from the Second Severn Crossing to Pont Abraham Carmarthenshire connecting the cities of Cardiff Newport and Swansea. In north Wales the A55 expressway performs a similar role along the north Wales coast providing connections between Holyhead and Bangor and Wrexham and Flintshire. It also links to England principally Chester. The main north-south Wales link is the A470 which runs from Cardiff to Llandudno. Cardiff International Airport is the only large and international airport in Wales. Providing links to European and North American destinations it is about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of Cardiff city centre in the Vale of Glamorgan. Highland Airways ran internal flights between Anglesey (Valley) and Cardiff from May 2007 until March 2010 until the company went into administration.307 The service (dubbed "Ieaun Air" after Deputy First Minister Ieuan Wyn Jones AM for Ynys Mn) resumed on 10 May 2010 with Isle of Man airline Manx2 the carrier.308 An Arriva Trains Wales service at Llandudno Junction railway station The country also has a significant railway network managed by the Welsh Assembly Government which reopened old railway lines to extend rail usage. Cardiff Central and Cardiff Queen Street are the busiest and the major hubs on the internal and national network. Beeching cuts in the 1960s mean that most of the remaining network is geared toward east-west travel to or from England. Services between north and south Wales operate through the English towns of Chester and Shrewsbury. Valley Lines services operate in Cardiff the South Wales Valleys and surrounding area and are heavily used as commuter lines. Arriva Trains Wales is the major operator of rail services within Wales. It also operates routes from within Wales to Crewe Manchester Birmingham and Cheltenham. Virgin Trains operate services from north Wales to London as part of the West Coast Main Line. First Great Western operate services from London to Newport and Cardiff every half hour with an hourly continuation to Swansea. It also runs services from Cardiff and Newport to southern England. CrossCountry offer services from Cardiff to Nottingham and Newcastle upon Tyne via the West Midlands East Midlands and Yorkshire. Wales is served by four commercial ferry ports. Regular ferry services to Ireland operate from Holyhead Pembroke and Fishguard. The Swansea to Cork service cancelled in 2006 was reinstated in March 2010.309 National symbols Main article: National symbols of Wales Prince of Wales's feathers a controversial symbol of Wales The Flag of Wales incorporates the red dragon (Y Ddraig Goch) of Prince Cadwalader along with the Tudor colours of green and white.310 It was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 after which it was carried in state to St. Paul's Cathedral.310 The red dragon was then included in the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognised as the Welsh national flag in 1959.311 The British Union Flag incorporates the flags of Scotland Ireland and England but has no Welsh representation. Technically it is represented by the flag of England as the Laws in Wales act of 1535 annexed Wales to England following the 13th-century conquest. The daffodil and the leek are also symbols of Wales. The origins of the leek can be traced to the 16th century while the daffodil became popular in the 19th century encouraged by David Lloyd-George.312 This is attributed to confusion of the Welsh for leek cenhinen and that for daffodil cenhinen Bedr or St. Peter's leek.122 A report in 1916 gave preference to the leek which has appeared on British pound coins.312 The Prince of Wales' heraldic badge is sometimes used to symbolise Wales. The badge known as the Prince of Wales's feathers consists of three white feathers emerging from a gold coronet. A ribbon below the coronet bears the German motto Ich dien (I serve). Several Welsh representative teams including the Welsh rugby union and Welsh regiments in the British Army (the Royal Welsh for example) use the badge or a stylised version of it. However its use is controversial and rejected by some as a symbol of the British monarchy rather than of Wales.313 "Hen Wlad fy Nhadau" (English: Land of My Fathers) is the National Anthem of Wales and is played at events such as football or rugby matches involving the Wales national team as well as the opening of the Welsh Assembly and other official occasions.314315 See also Wales portal Main article: Outline of Wales Aberfan disaster Aneurin Bevan Chartism Merthyr Rising Dic Penderyn Rebecca Riots Tonypandy Riots Y Wladfa References a b c Davies (1994) p. 100 "Population estimates for UK England and Wales Scotland and Northern Ireland current datasets". ONS website. Office for National Statistics. 24 June 2010. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.aspvlnk15106. Retrieved 26 September 2010.  Also .eu as part of the European Union. ISO 3166-1 is GB but .gb is unused. Also spelled "Gymru" "Nghymru" or "Chymru" in certain contexts as Welsh is a language with initial mutations see Welsh morphology. a b "The Countries of the UK". statistics.gov.uk. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/geography/ukcountries.asp. Retrieved 10 October 2008.  Rollason David (2003). "Origins of a People". Northumbria 5001100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-521-04102-7.  (French) Albert Henry Histoire des mots Wallons et Wallonie Institut Jules Destre Coll. Notre histoire Mont-sur-Marchienne 1990 3rd ed. (1st ed. 1965) footnote 13 p. 86. Henry wrote the same about Wallachia a b Davies (1994) p. 71 Tolkien J. R. R. (1963). Angles and Britons: O'Donnell Lectures. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. English and Welsh an O'Donnell Lecture delivered at Oxford on Oct. 21 1955.  Gilleland Michael (12 December 2007). "Laudator Temporis Acti: More on the Etymology of Walden". Laudator Temporis Acti website. Michael Gilleland. http://laudatortemporisacti.blogspot.com/2007/12/more-on-etymology-of-walden.html. Retrieved 29 October 2008.  a b Davies (1994) p. 69 Lloyd John Edward (1911). "Note to Chapter VI the Name "Cymry"". A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest. I (Second ed.). London: Longmans Green and Co. (published 1912). pp. 191192. http://books.google.com/booksidNYwNAAAAIAAJ&pgPA191.  Phillimore Egerton (1891). "Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany". In Phillimore Egerton. Y Cymmrodor. XI. London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. 1892. pp. 97101. http://books.google.com/booksidM35QO0vor-EC&pgPA97.  Davies (1994) p. 71 The poem contains the line: 'Ar wynep Kymry Cadwallawn was'. "Welsh skeleton re-dated: even older!". archaeology.co.uk website. Current Archaeology. 6 November 2007. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/welsh-skeleton-re-dated-even-older.htm. Retrieved 28 September 2010 : see Red Lady of Paviland.  Pollard Joshua (2001). "Wales' Hidden History Hunter-Gatherer Communities in Wales: The Neolithic". In Morgan Prys; Aldhouse-Green Stephen. History of Wales 25000 BC AD 2000. Stroud Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing. pp. 1325. ISBN 0752419838.  Davies (2008) pp. 647648 Evans Edith; Lewis Richard (2003). "The Prehistoric Funerary and Ritual Monument Survey of Glamorgan and Gwent: Overviews. A Report for Cadw by Edith Evans BA PhD MIFA and Richard Lewis BA". Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society (Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust) 64: 4. http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/cadwreports/pdfs/GGAT%2072%20Overviews.pdf. Retrieved 30 September 2009.  Davies (1994) p. 17 "Overview: From Neolithic to Bronze Age 8000800 BC (Page 1 of 6)". BBC History website. BBC. 5 September 2006. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/britishprehistory/overviewbritishprehistory01.shtml. Retrieved 5 August 2008.  a b c Davies (1994) pp. 46 "GGAT 72 Overviews". A Report for Cadw by Edith Evans BA PhD MIFA and Richard Lewis BA. Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust. 2003. p. 47. http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/cadwreports/pdfs/GGAT%2072%20Overviews.pdf. Retrieved 30 December 2008.  "Stones of Wales Pentre Ifan Dolmen". Stone Pages website. Paola Arosio/Diego Meozzi. 2003. http://www.stonepages.com/wales/pentreifan.html. Retrieved 17 November 2008.  "Stones of Wales Bryn Celli Ddu Burial chamber". Stone Pages website. Paola Arosio/Diego Meozzi. 2003. http://www.stonepages.com/wales/bryncelliddu.html. Retrieved 17 November 2008.  "Parc le Breos Burial Chamber; Parc CWM Long Cairn". The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales website. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales. 2006. http://www.coflein.gov.uk/en/site/93072/details/PARC+LE+BREOS+BURIAL+CHAMBER%3BPARC+CWM+LONG+CAIRN/. Retrieved 24 October 2008.  "Themes Prehistoric Wales: The Stone Age". BBC Cymru Wales website. BBC Cymru Wales. 2008. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/periods/prehistoric02.shtml. Retrieved 24 October 2008.  "O'Donnell Lecture 2008 Appendix". 2008. http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf. Retrieved 2 October 2010.  Koch John (2009). Tartessian: Celtic from the Southwest at the Dawn of History in Acta Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica 9 (2009). Palaeohispanica. pp. 339351. ISSN 1578-5386. http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf. Retrieved 17 May 2010.  Koch John. "New research suggests Welsh Celtic roots lie in Spain and Portugal". http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.phpsid2146413465. Retrieved 10 May 2010.  Cunliffe Karl Guerra McEvoy Bradley; Oppenheimer Rrvik Isaac Parsons Koch Freeman and Wodtko (2010). Celtic from the West: Alternative Perspectives from Archaeology Genetics Language and Literature. Oxbow Books and Celtic Studies Publications. p. 384. ISBN 978-1-84217-410-4. http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/88298//Location/DBBC.  Cunliffe Barry (2008). A Race Apart: Insularity and Connectivity in Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75 2009 pp. 5564. The Prehistoric Society. p. 61.  Jones Barri; Mattingly David (1990). "The Development of the Provinces". An Atlas of Roman Britain. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007). p. 151. ISBN 9781842170670.  Jones Barri; Mattingly David (1990). "The Development of the Provinces". An Atlas of Roman Britain. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007). p. 154. ISBN 9781842170670.  a b Jones Barri; Mattingly David (1990). "The Economy". An Atlas of Roman Britain. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007). pp. 179196. ISBN 9781842170670.  a b c d e Davies (2008) p.915 a b Davies (2008) p.531 Frere Sheppard Sunderland (1987). "The End of Roman Britain". Britannia: A History of Roman Britain (3rd revised ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 354. ISBN 0-7102-1215-1.  Giles John Allen ed (1841). "The Works of Gildas The History Ch. 14". The Works of Gildas and Nennius. London: James Bohn. p. 13. http://books.google.com/booksid3R1mCE7p44MC&pgPA1.  Phillimore Egerton ed (1887). "Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20". Y Cymmrodor. VIII. Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. pp. 8392. http://books.google.com/booksidHlUrAAAAIAAJ&pgPA83.  Phillimore Egerton (1888). "The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies from Harleian MS. 3859". In Phillimore Egerton. Y Cymmrodor. IX. Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. pp. 141183. http://books.google.com/booksidaFMrAAAAIAAJ&pgPA141.  Rachel Bromwich editor and translator. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Cardiff: University of Wales Press Third Edition 2006. 441444 Kate Ravilious (21 July 2006). "Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society Study Suggests". National Geographic News. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/07/060721-england.html. Retrieved 9 September 2010.  a b Davies (1994) pp. 56 a b Davies (1994) pp. 6566 Davies (2008) p. 926 David Hill and Margaret Worthington Offa's Dyke: history and guide Tempus 2003 ISBN 0-7524-1958-7 Davies (2008) p. 911 Charles-Edwards T M (2001). "Wales and Mercia 613918". In Brown Michelle P; Farr Carol Ann. Mercia: an Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Europe. Leicester University Press. p. 104. ISBN 0718502310. http://books.google.com/booksidH8Ke9acHFm4C&pgPA176. Retrieved 27 November 2010.  Hill David (2001). "Wales and Mercia 613918". In Brown Michelle P; Farr Carol Ann. Mercia: an Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Europe. Leicester University Press. p. 176. ISBN 0718502310. http://books.google.com/booksidH8Ke9acHFm4C&pgPA176. Retrieved 27 November 2010.  The earliest instance of Lloegyr occurs in the early 10th century prophetic poem Armes Prydein. It seems comparatively late as a place name the nominative plural Lloegrwys "men of Lloegr" being earlier and more common. The English were sometimes referred to as an entity in early poetry (Saeson as today) but just as often as Eingl (Angles) Iwys (Wessex-men) etc. Lloegr and Sacson became the norm later when England emerged as a kingdom. As for its origins some scholars have suggested that it originally referred only to Mercia at that time a powerful kingdom and for centuries the main foe of the Welsh. It was then applied to the new kingdom of England as a whole (see for instance Rachel Bromwich (ed.) Trioedd Ynys Prydein University of Wales Press 1987). "The lost land" and other fanciful meanings such as Geoffrey of Monmouth's monarch Locrinus have no etymological basis. (See also Discussion article 40) Davies (1994) p. 2 Davies (2008) p. 714 Davies (2008) p. 186 Davies (2008) p. 388 Davies (1994) p. 128 Davies (1994) p. 101 a b Max Lieberman (2010). The Medieval March of Wales: The Creation and Perception of a Frontier 10661283. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 052 176 978 7. http://books.google.com/id2nda0A3pVYAC&pgPA19. Retrieved 4 October 2010.  "Chapter 6: The Coming of the Normans". BBC Cymru Wales website. BBC Cymru Wales. 2008. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch6comingofthenormans.shtml. Retrieved 4 October 2010.  Davies (1994) pp. 133134 Davies (1994) pp. 143144 a b Davies (1994) pp. 151152 "Tribute to lost Welsh princess". BBC News. 12 June 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uknews/wales/786625.stm. Retrieved 5 March 2007.  Davies (1994) p. 162 Davies (1994) p. 175 Davies (2008) p. 711 a b Illustrated Encyclopedia of Britain. London: Reader's Digest. 1999. p. 459. ISBN 0-276-42412-3. "A country and principality within the mainland of Britain ... about half a million"  The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary. Great Britain: Oxford University Press. 1976 1975. p. 949. "Wales (-lz). Principality occupying extreme W. of central southern portion of Gt Britain"  Davies (1994) p. 194 "BBC History British History in Depth Wales under the Tudors". BBC website. BBC. 5 November 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/walestudors01.shtml. Retrieved 21 September 2010.  a b c d Davies (2008) p. 392 a b c d e Davies (2008) p. 393 Davies (2008) p. 818 'the most Welsh of Welsh industries' attributed to historian A. H. Dodd. Davies (2008) p. 819 "Wales the first industrial nation of the World". Amgueddfa Cymru National Museum Wales. 5 October 2008. http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1912/. Retrieved 9 September 2010.  John Arthur H. (1980). Glamorgan County History Volume V Industrial Glamorgan from 1700 to 1970. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 183.  a b Davies (2008) p. 284 Davies (2008) p. 285 a b Davies (2008) p. 461 "David Lloyd George (18631945)". BBC Cymru Wales website. BBC Cymru Wales. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/figures/lloydgeorge.shtml. Retrieved 26 September 2010.  Davies (2008) p. 515 a b c Davies (2008) p. 439 Morgan Kenneth O. (1982). Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 18801980. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 208210. ISBN 0198217609.  Davies (2008) p. 918 a b c d e Davies (2008) p. 807 "Dam graffiti wall set to be saved". BBC News website (BBC). 17 October 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/mid/6056566.stm. Retrieved 21 June 2009.  "Disestablishment Cymru Fydd and Plaid Cymru". National Library of Wales. llgc.org.uk. http://www.llgc.org.uk/ymgyrchu/Datganoli/PlaidCymru/index-e.htm. Retrieved 25 November 2010.  "Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg's first protest 1963". Gathering the Jewels. gtj.org.uk. http://www.gtj.org.uk/index.phpid5192. Retrieved 25 November 2010.  "Wales on Air: The drowning of Tryweryn and Capel Celyn". BBc.co.uk. BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/walesonair/database/trywerin.shtml. Retrieved 25 November 2010.  "Flooding Apology". BBC website. BBC. 19 October 2005. http://www.bbc.co.uk/liverpool/content/articles/2005/10/17/featurewelshreservoirfeature.shtml. Retrieved 18 October 2008.  Clews Roy (1980). To Dream of Freedom The story of MAC and the Free Wales Army. Y Lolfa Cyf. Talybont. pp. 15 21 & 2631. ISBN 0862435862.  Clews Roy (1980). To Dream of Freedom The story of MAC and the Free Wales Army. Y Lolfa Cyf. Talybont. pp. 22 59 60 & 216. ISBN 0862435862.  Gwynfor Evans (2000). The Fight for Welsh Freedom. Y Lolfa Cyf. Talybont. p. 152. ISBN 08624351532.  a b Davies (2008) p. 236 Davies (2008) p. 237 a b Powys Betsan (12 January 2010). "The long Welsh walk to devolution". BBC News website (BBC). http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/walespolitics/7813837.stm. Retrieved 26 September 2010.  "countries within a country:number10.gov.uk". 10 Downing Street website. 10 Downing Street. 10 January 2003. http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823. Retrieved 5 November 2010. "The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England Scotland Wales and Northern Ireland."  "UN report causes stir with Wales dubbed 'Principality'". WalesOnline website. Media Wales Ltd. 3 July 2010. http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/welsh-politics/welsh-politics-news/2010/07/03/un-report-causes-stir-with-wales-dubbed-principality-91466-26777027/. Retrieved 25 July 2010. "... the Assemblys Counsel General John Griffiths said: "I agree that in relation to Wales Principality is a misnomer and that Wales should properly be referred to as a country."  a b "Wales.com FAQs". Wales.com website. Welsh Assembly Government. 2008. http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/faqs/faqs.aspx#Question%2011. Retrieved 15 October 2010.  Bogdanor Vernon (1995). The Monarchy and the Constitution. London: Oxford University Press. p. 52. ISBN 0198277695. http://books.google.com/idlTnHwWWKAR8C&pgPA52. Retrieved 05 November 2010. "In his autobiography the Duke of Windsor complained that as Prince of Wales there was 'no specific routine job in the sense for example that a vice-president has a job Though I was next in line to the Throne with all that position implied I actually possessed no formal state duties or responsibilities.' 'This constitutional vacuum' Jonathon Dimbleby biographer of the Prince of Wales has noted 'was not an oversight but documentary evidence of the peculiar position that the heir apparent occupies; there is no formal "role" except to wait.'"  "Election 2005 Results: Wales". BBC News website (BBC). 1 June 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/vote2005/html/region10.stm. Retrieved 9 September 2010.  "David Cameron appoints Cheryl Gillan as Welsh Secretary". BBC News website (BBC). 12 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/8677418.stm. Retrieved 12 May 2010.  "UK Parliament -Parliament's role". United Kingdom Parliament website. United Kingdom Parliament. 29 June 2009. http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role.cfm. Retrieved 1 September 2009.  "The role of the Secretary of State for Wales". Welsh Assembly Government website. Welsh Assembly Government. 2005. https://www.justice.gov.uk/guidance/docs/dgn04.pdf. Retrieved 28 September 2010.  a b c "How the Assembly is elected". National Assembly for Wales website. National Assembly for Wales. 2010. http://www.assemblywales.org/abthome/abt-nafw/abt-assembly-elections-2/abt-nafw-how-assembly-elected.htm. Retrieved 6 October 2010.  "Labour-Plaid coalition is sealed". BBC News website (BBC). 7 July 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/6278848.stm. Retrieved 29 September 2010.  "Carwyn Jones officially nominated as First Minister". WalesOnline website. Media Wales Ltd. 9 December 2009. http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/welsh-politics/welsh-politics-news/2009/12/09/carwyn-jones-officially-nominated-as-first-minister-91466-25357282/. 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Retrieved 31 December 2010.  a b UK 2005 The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Office for National Statistics. 2004. pp. 2 & 30. ISBN 0116217383. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/themecompendia/UK2005/UK2005.pdf. Retrieved 12 November 2010.  "Geography: About Wales". Visit Wales website. Welsh Assembly Government. 2010. http://www.visitwales.co.uk/about-wales-guide-to-wales-culture-people-and-language/welsh-geography/. Retrieved 3 October 2010.  "Size of Wales project". WWF Cymru website. World Wide Fund for Nature. 2010. http://wales.wwf.org.uk/whatwedo/changingthewaywelive/sizeofwalesproject/. Retrieved 12 November 2010.  "England and Wales". European Land Information Service. http://eulis.eu/service/countries-profile/england-and-wales/. Retrieved 2 October 2010.  Parliamentary Debates House of Commons 16 December 1974 column 317W "Limits of Oceans and Seas 3rd edition + corrections". International Hydrographic Organization. 1971. p. 42 corrections to page 13. http://www.iho-ohi.net/ihopubs/standard/S-23/S231953.pdf. Retrieved 12 November 2010.  "The Official Yearbook of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". Office for National Statistics. The Stationary Office. 30 April 2010. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/themecompendia/UK2002/UK2002.pdf.  "High tea: Mount Snowdon's magical mountaintop cafe". guardian.co.uk. 2 August 2009. http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2009/aug/02/mount-snowdon-cafe. Retrieved 28 September 2010.  "Mountain upgraded to 'super' status". WalesOnline website. Media Wales Ltd. 22 September 2010. http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/2010/09/22/mountain-upgraded-to-super-status-91466-27315826/. Retrieved 30 September 2010.  "The Welsh 3000s Challenge". welsh3000s.co.uk. http://www.welsh3000s.co.uk/. Retrieved 28 September 2010.  "Aran Fawddwy". snowdoniaguide.com. http://www.snowdoniaguide.com/aranfawddwy.html. 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Companion to Welsh Literature. The doggerel verse was composed in English probably for the benefit of visitors from across Offa's Dyke. "The Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era: 542 to 488 Million Years Ago". palaeos.com. 11 April 2002. http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Cambrian/Cambrian.htm. Retrieved 2 October 2010.  Sedgwick A. (1852). "On the classification and nomenclature of the Lower Paleozoic rocks of England and Wales". Q. J. Geol. Soc. Land. 8: 136138. doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1852.008.01-02.20.  "The Silurian: The Silurian Period of the Paleozoic Era: 444 to 416 Mya". palaeos.com. 11 April 2002. http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Silurian/Silurian.htm. Retrieved 26 September 2010.  "The Ordovician: The Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era: 488 to 444 million years ago". palaeos.com. 11 April 2002. http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Ordovician/Ordovician.htm. Retrieved 26 September 2010.  a b c d e f "Met Office: Regional Climate: Wales". Met Office website. 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BBC Cymru Wales website (BBC). 1 December 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/6586105.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2010.  Bibliography Davies John (1994). A History of Wales. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-01-4581-8.  Davies John; Jenkins Nigel; Baines Menna et al. eds (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6.  External links Find more about Wales on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Welsh Assembly Government National Assembly for Wales Wales Legislation Online Cardiff Law School BBC Wales Wales at the Open Directory Project VisitWales.com The official international guide to places to stay and things to do in Wales. VisitWales.co.uk The official UK guide to places to stay and things to do in Wales. Wales Official Gateway to Wales Gathering the Jewels Welsh Heritage and Culture Photographs of Wales  Articles Related to Wales v d eWales topics History Prehistory  Roman Era  Castles  Early Middle Ages  Kingdom of Gwynedd  Kingdom of Powys  Deheubarth  Welsh law  Norman invasion  Late Middle Ages  Statute of Rhuddlan  Glyndr Rising  Laws in Wales Acts 15351542 Politics Elections  Assembly  First Minister  Secretary of State  Welsh Office  Self-government Geography Geology  Mountains and hills  Islands  Lakes  Rivers  Protected areas Demographics Welsh people Language Welsh language  History of the Welsh language  Welsh English Culture Education  Music (National anthem)  Literature in Welsh  Literature in English  Eisteddfod  Art  Media  Museums Religion Saint David  Welsh Methodist revival  19041905 Welsh Revival  Church in Wales Symbols National flag (other flags)  Welsh Dragon  Prince of Wales's feathers  Royal Badge of Wales Sport Rugby union (National team)  Football (National team)  Boxing  Cricket  Horse racing  Rugby league (National team) Category  Portal  WikiProject v d eLocal government in Wales Principal areas established in 1996 Blaenau Gwent  Bridgend  Caerphilly  Cardiff  Carmarthenshire  Ceredigion  Conwy  Denbighshire  Flintshire  Gwynedd  Isle of Anglesey  Merthyr Tydfil  Monmouthshire  Neath Port Talbot  Newport  Pembrokeshire  Powys  Rhondda Cynon Taf  Swansea  Torfaen  Vale of Glamorgan  Wrexham Counties and districts 19741996 Clwyd Alyn and Deeside  Colwyn  Delyn  Glyndr  Rhuddlan  Wrexham Maelor Dyfed Carmarthen  Ceredigion  Dinefwr  Llanelli  Preseli Pembrokeshire  South Pembrokeshire Gwent Blaenau Gwent  Islwyn  Monmouth  Newport  Torfaen Gwynedd Aberconwy  Anglesey  Arfon  Dwyfor  Meirionnydd Mid Glamorgan Cynon Valley  Merthyr Tydfil  Ogwr  Rhondda  Rhymney Valley  Taff-Ely Powys Brecknock  Montgomeryshire  Radnorshire South Glamorgan Cardiff  Vale of Glamorgan West Glamorgan Lliw Valley  Neath  Port Talbot  Swansea Counties 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Lakes and Lochs  Rivers   Volcanoes History Timeline  Military history  Maritime history  Economic history  British Empire UK Government Courts  Parliament  House of Commons  House of Lords  Monarchy  Prime Minister  Cabinet  Departments  Constitution  Law  Nationality  Legislation  Foreign relations  Law enforcement UK Politics Elections  Parties Economy Pound sterling  London Stock Exchange  Banks (Bank of England)  Taxation  Transport  Communications  Economic geography  Mining  Energy  United Kingdom budget Military Royal Navy  Army  Royal Air Force  Weapons of mass destruction Society Crime  Poverty  Social structure Demography Ethnic groups  Immigration  Languages  Cities  Towns Culture Art  Cinema  Cuisine  Identity  Literature  Media  Music  Sport  Television  Theatre   Public holidays England History  English Society  Politics  Education  Health care  Religion  Tourism Northern Ireland History  Northern Ireland Executive  Northern Ireland Assembly  First Minister and deputy First Minister  Politics  Education  Health care  Religion  Tourism Scotland History  Scottish Government  Scottish Parliament  First Minister  Politics  Education  Health care  Religion  Tourism Wales History  Welsh Assembly Government  Welsh Assembly  First Minister  Politics  Education  Health care  Religion  Tourism Category  Portal  WikiProject v d eNational personifications Argentina: Effigies of Argentina  Armenia: Mother Armenia  Brazil: Efgie da Repblica  Cambodia: Preah Thaong and Neang Neak  Canada: Johnny Canuck  Finland: Finnish Maiden (Suomi-neito)  France: Marianne  Germany: Deutscher Michel Germania  Greece: Athena "Greece" of Delacroix  Iceland: Lady of the Mountain  India: Bharat Mata  Indonesia: Ibu Pertiwi  Ireland: riu Hibernia Kathleen Ni Houlihan  Israel: Srulik  Italy: Italia Turrita  Japan: Amaterasu  Indonesia: Ibu Pertiwi (East Malaysia)  Netherlands: Netherlands Maiden  New Zealand: Zealandia  Norway: Ola Nordmann  Pakistan: Pak Watan  Philippines: Juan dela 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Click on the coloured regions to view the related article.     Regions where English is an official language and spoken by a significant population Africa Mauritius  Saint Helena  Americas (Anglo-America) Anguilla  Antigua and Barbuda  The Bahamas  Barbados  Belize  Bermuda  British Virgin Islands  Canada  Cayman Islands  Dominica  Falkland Islands  Grenada  Guyana  Jamaica  Montserrat  Puerto Rico  Saba  Saint Kitts and Nevis  Saint Lucia  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines  Saint Eustatius  Sint Maarten  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands  Trinidad and Tobago  Turks and Caicos Islands  United States  United States Virgin Islands Asia Hong Kong  Philippines  Singapore Europe Gibraltar  Guernsey  Ireland  Isle of Man  Jersey  Malta  United Kingdom Oceania American Samoa  Australia  Christmas Island  Guam  Marshall Islands  Federated States of Micronesia  Nauru  New Zealand  Norfolk Island  Northern Mariana Islands  Palau  Vanuatu   Regions where English is an official language but not as widely spoken Africa Botswana  Cameroon  Gambia  Ghana  Kenya  Lesotho  Liberia  Malawi  Namibia  Nigeria  Rwanda  Sierra Leone  Somaliland  South Africa  Sudan  Swaziland  Tanzania  Uganda  Zambia  Zimbabwe Asia India  Pakistan    Oceania Cook Islands  Fiji  Niue  Papua New Guinea  Pitcairn Islands  Solomon Islands  Tokelau  Tuvalu